Systems capable of forecasting ocean properties and acoustic performance in the littoral ocean are becoming a useful capability for scientific and operational exercises. The coupling of a data-assimilative nested ocean modeling system with an acoustic propagation modeling system was carried out at sea for the first time, within the scope of Battlespace Preparation 2007 (BP07) that was part of Marine Rapid Environmental Assessment (MREA07) exercises. The littoral region for our studies was southeast of the island of Elba ( Italy) in the Tyrrhenian basin east of Corsica and Sardinia. During BP07, several vessels collected in situ ocean data, based in part on recommendations from oceanographic forecasts. The data were assimilated into a fourdimensional high-resolution ocean modeling system. Sound-speed forecasts were then used as inputs for bearing-and range-dependent acoustic propagation forecasts. Data analyses are carried out and the set-up of the coupled oceanographic-acoustic system as well as the results of its real-time use are described. A significant finding is that oceanographic variability can considerably influence acoustic propagation properties, including the probability of detection, even in this apparently quiet region around Elba. This strengthens the importance of coupling at-sea acoustic modeling to real-time ocean forecasting. Other findings include the challenges involved in downscaling basin-scale modeling systems to high-resolution littoral models, especially in the Mediterranean Sea. Due to natural changes, global human activities and present model resolutions, the assimilation of synoptic regional ocean data is recommended in the region.
INTRODUCTIONSea surface scattering by wind-generated waves and bubbles is regarded to be the main nonplatform-related cause of the time variability of shallow acoustic communication channels.Simulations for predicting the quality of acoustic communication links in such channels thus require adequate modelling of these dynamic sea-surface effects. It is known that, for frequencies in the range 1-4 kHz, the effect of bubbles on sea surface reflection loss is mainly due to refraction, which can be modelled with a modified sound-speed profile accounting for the bubble void fraction in the surface layer (Hall-Novarini model). The upward refraction induced by the bubble cloud then effectively acts as a catalyst for increasing the rough-surface scattering.In the present work, it is shown that, for frequencies in the range 4-8 kHz, bubble extinction also provides a significant contribution to the surface loss, including both the effects of bubble scattering and absorption. As this is the frequency band adopted in the European Defence Agency (EDA) project RACUN (Robust Acoustic Communication in Underwater Networks [1]), in which the reported research has been conducted, both bubble refraction and extinction effects should be modelled for acoustic channel simulations in RACUN. These model-based channel simulations will be performed by applying a Gaussian-beam ray-tracer (BELLHOP), together with a toolbox for generation of realistic rough sea surfaces based on both fully-developed ocean and short-fetch North Sea wave-height spectra and angular spreading functions (WAFO). SEA SURFACE MODELLING IntroductionThe objective of the present work is to improve channel modelling for underwater acoustic communication by incorporation of the effects of time-varying ambient conditions, especially windgenerated sea surface wave effects. These effects are probably the main cause of time-varying multipath and Doppler spread when both the transmitter and receiver are static. The sea surface dynamics can roughly be divided into two basic mechanisms:1. Periodic vertical motion of the sea surface; 2. Near-surface bubbles created by (breaking) waves.See Figure 1 for a schematic illustration of these effects.In order to keep things practical, we will at this point assume a separation of time scales for the sea surface dynamics and the underwater acoustic propagation. That is, we will treat the problem as "piece-wise frozen". For each "frozen" realization of the sea surface and the bubble distribution, acoustic computations are then performed without accounting for the instantaneous velocity of the sea surface and the bubbles. The main Doppler effects come in as a consequence of the variation of the path lengths between consecutive realizations [2]. This is called the range rate: dL k (t)/dt, with
The underwater sound produced during construction of the Port of Rotterdam harbor extension (Maasvlakte 2) was measured, with emphasis on the contribution of the trailing suction hopper dredgers during their various activities: dredging, transport, and discharge of sediment. Measured source levels of the dredgers, estimated source levels of other shipping, and time-dependent position data from a vessel-tracking system were used as input for a propagation model to generate dynamic sound maps. Various scenarios were studied to assess the risk of possible effects of the sound from dredging activities on marine fauna, specifically on porpoises, seals, and fish.
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