BackgroundHunting of male African elephants may pose ethical and risk concerns, particularly given their status as a charismatic species of high touristic value, yet which are capable of both killing people and damaging infrastructure.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe quantified the effect of hunts of male elephants on (1) risk of attack or damage (11 hunts), and (2) behavioural (movement dynamics) and physiological (stress hormone metabolite concentrations) responses (4 hunts) in Pilanesberg National Park. For eleven hunts, there were no subsequent attacks on people or infrastructure, and elephants did not break out of the fenced reserve. For three focal hunts, there was an initial flight response by bulls present at the hunting site, but their movements stabilised the day after the hunt event. Animals not present at the hunt (both bulls and herds) did not show movement responses. Physiologically, hunting elephant bulls increased faecal stress hormone levels (corticosterone metabolites) in both those bulls that were present at the hunts (for up to four days post-hunt) and in the broader bull and breeding herd population (for up to one month post-hunt).Conclusions/SignificanceAs all responses were relatively minor, hunting male elephants is ethically acceptable when considering effects on the remaining elephant population; however bulls should be hunted when alone. Hunting is feasible in relatively small enclosed reserves without major risk of attack, damage, or breakout. Physiological stress assays were more effective than behavioural responses in detecting effects of human intervention. Similar studies should evaluate intervention consequences, inform and improve best practice, and should be widely applied by management agencies.

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Crop raiding is one of the most common forms of human-elephant conflict. Deterring elephants from raiding crops requires an understanding of the factors influencing the behavior of the individuals involved. We collected fecal samples from five group ranches in southern Kenya where crop-raiding incidents had occurred (n= 10) and two protected areas, Amboseli National Park (n =24) and Maasai Mara National Reserve (n = 20). We used molecular sexing to sex the individuals and radioimmunoassay kits to determine the level of glucocorticoid metabolites (i.e. stress hormones) in their dung. All crop-raiding individuals were male and had a significantly elevated concentration of glucocorticoid metabolites as compared with the Amboseli elephants (W= 12, P = 0.0005). We detected no significant difference between Maasai Mara elephants and either Amboseli or the crop-raiding elephants when just males were compared. Our results suggest that crop raiding may be related to stress in elephants.

Managers of reintroduced wildlife commonly encounter behavioral problems post-release that have been linked to physiological condition and elevated stress hormone concentrations. However, there is uncertainty about the generality of a stress response among populations, factors influencing the intensity of the response and the amount of time needed to physiologically acclimatize. We evaluated the relationship of temporal, climatic and social factors to stress hormone concentrations in five African elephant (Loxodonta africana) populations following reintroduction. We determined fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations (FGMs) in 1567 fecal samples collected from elephants reintroduced to five fenced reserves with differing reintroduction histories in South Africa during 2000-2006. Variation in FGMs across the five reserves was best explained by the number of years that elapsed since initial release. Compared with FGMs 1 year after release, FGMs were 10% lower 10 years after release and 40% lower 24 years after release. Across all reserves, FGMs were consistently highest in the dry season, although daily and monthly temperature and rainfall were not as important as other factors. FGMs did not vary solely in relationship to reserve size or elephant density. Our findings suggest that regardless of reintroduction site conditions, elephants and likely other species subject to reintroduction require an extended period of time to physiologically acclimatize to their new surroundings. Managers should prepare for prolonged behavioral and physiological consequences of long-term elevated stress responses following reintroduction, such as restricted space use and aggressive behavior. bs_bs_banner Animal Conservation. Print ISSN 1367-9430 Animal Conservation 16 (2013) 575-583

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