Gradual inflation of magma chambers often precedes eruptions at highly active volcanoes. During such eruptions, rapid deflation occurs as magma flows out and pressure is reduced. Less is known about the deformation style at moderately active volcanoes, such as Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland, where an explosive summit eruption of trachyandesite beginning on 14 April 2010 caused exceptional disruption to air traffic, closing airspace over much of Europe for days. This eruption was preceded by an effusive flank eruption of basalt from 20 March to 12 April 2010. The 2010 eruptions are the culmination of 18 years of intermittent volcanic unrest. Here we show that deformation associated with the eruptions was unusual because it did not relate to pressure changes within a single magma chamber. Deformation was rapid before the first eruption (>5 mm per day after 4 March), but negligible during it. Lack of distinct co-eruptive deflation indicates that the net volume of magma drained from shallow depth during this eruption was small; rather, magma flowed from considerable depth. Before the eruption, a ∼0.05 km(3) magmatic intrusion grew over a period of three months, in a temporally and spatially complex manner, as revealed by GPS (Global Positioning System) geodetic measurements and interferometric analysis of satellite radar images. The second eruption occurred within the ice-capped caldera of the volcano, with explosivity amplified by magma-ice interaction. Gradual contraction of a source, distinct from the pre-eruptive inflation sources, is evident from geodetic data. Eyjafjallajökull's behaviour can be attributed to its off-rift setting with a 'cold' subsurface structure and limited magma at shallow depth, as may be typical for moderately active volcanoes. Clear signs of volcanic unrest signals over years to weeks may indicate reawakening of such volcanoes, whereas immediate short-term eruption precursors may be subtle and difficult to detect.
an earthquake doublet shook the southwestern part of Iceland. The first main shock originated beneath Mt Ingólfsfjall, located near the western margin of the South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ) approximately 40 km east of the capital Reykjavík. Immediate aftershock activity was recorded by the SIL seismic network, operated by the Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO), with both N-S and E-W structures illuminated over a broad area. A continuous GPS (CGPS) network, also operated by the IMO, recorded coseismic offsets with up to 200 mm of horizontal motion at the closest stations. We estimate the coseismic surface deformation observed by campaign and continuous GPS and satellite radar data (InSAR). We invert the geodetic data to find the optimal geometry, location and slip on the main faults, accounting for variation in the elastic parameters of the crust with depth. Our models indicate that most of the slip occurred on two N-S structures spaced ∼5 km apart. From a joint inversion of GPS and InSAR data for variable slip models we find that most of the slip for the first (Ingólfsfjall) event was concentrated at 2-4 km depth with a maximum of 1.9 m, whereas the slip on the second (Kross) fault was located deeper, at 3-6 km depth with up to 1.4 m of motion. The models give similar geodetic moments for the two main events, equivalent to a moment magnitude of M w 5.8 and M w 5.9 for the first and second event, respectively. Our estimated composite moment therefore equals a M w 6.1 for the doublet, smaller than the M w 6.3 estimated from teleseismic data (e.g. NEIC and Harvard).The geodetic data support rupture on two main faults and analysis of high-rate (1 Hz) CGPS data suggests that slip on the second fault initiated within 3 s of the first main shock. Static Coulomb failure stress calculations indicate that the first event caused a stress increase in the area of the main asperity (i.e. at the location of the largest slip patch) on the second fault. However, we cannot rule out dynamic stress triggering due to the short time between the two main events. The 2008 May 29 earthquake doublet appears to be a continuation of the earthquake sequence that started in 2000 June, when two M w 6.5 events struck the eastern and central part of the South Iceland Seismic Zone, in the span of 81 hr. The 2000 June-2008 May sequence has released about half of the moment accumulated by plate motion since the previous earthquake sequence in [1896][1897][1898][1899][1900][1901][1902][1903][1904][1905][1906][1907][1908][1909][1910][1911][1912]. Therefore, continued earthquake activity with moderate size events rupturing N-S faults in the SISZ in the coming decades is likely.
A complex sequence of earthquakes struck the western part of the South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ) on 29 May 2008. The sequence initiated with a Mw6.3 (NEIC) earthquake in the western part of the SISZ. Aftershocks from the earthquake delineate two parallel N–S trending structures 4 km apart, in addition to activity along an E‐W zone further westward. Continuous GPS measurements can best be explained by right‐lateral strike‐slip motion on two parallel N–S trending faults, with little slip occurring on other structures illuminated by earthquake activity. We estimate a total moment release of Mw6.2, with Mw6.1 on the first rupture and Mw6.0 on the second rupture. High rate (1 Hz) CGPS data from a near‐field station suggest that the main asperity on the Kross fault ruptured within 3 s of the initial mainshock on the Ingólfsfjall fault.
Infrared (IR) satellite-based sensors allow the detection and quantification of volcanic hot spots. Sensors flown on geostationary satellites are particularly helpful in the early warning and continuous tracking of effusive activity. Development of operational monitoring and dissemination systems is essential to achieve the real-time ingestion and processing of IR data for a timely response during volcanic crises. HOTVOLC is a web-based satellite-data-driven monitoring system developed at the Observatoire de Physique du Globe de Clermont-Ferrand (Clermont-Ferrand), designed to achieve near-real-time monitoring of volcanic activity using on-site ingestion of geostationary satellite data (e.g. MSG-SEVIRI, MTSAT, GOES-Imager). Here we present the characteristics of the HOTVOLC system for the monitoring of effusive activity. The system comprises two acquisition stations and secure databases (i.e. mirrored archives). The detection of volcanic hot spots uses a contextual algorithm that is based on a modified form of the Normalized Thermal Index (NTI*) and VAST. Raster images and numerical data are available to open-access on a Web-GIS interface. Tests are carried out and presented here, particularly for the 12–13 January 2011 eruption of Mount Etna, to show the capability of the system to provide quantitative information such as lava volume and time-averaged discharge rate. Examples of operational application reveal the ability of the HOTVOLC system to provide timely thermal information about volcanic hot spot activity.
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