Objective No method exists to measure aniseikonia tolerance in stereoacuity. The brain can compensate for 2%–3% aniseikonia (i.e. 2–3 dioptres of anisometropia) without impairing stereoacuity; however, a substantial proportion of anisometropic patients experience problems caused by disruptions of sensory fusion due to surgically induced aniseikonia. We hypothesized that individual differences in tolerance to aniseikonia exist and sought to develop a method to measure aniseikonia tolerance. Methods A total of 21 eye‐healthy phakic individuals older than 50 years of age and 11 patients awaiting clear lens extraction were included. Patients were tested with best corrected near and distance visual acuity, cover/uncover test, eye dominance test, stereoacuity threshold (TNO test), slit lamp examination and ocular coherence tomography. The stereoacuity threshold was determined with aniseikonia induced by different size lenses ranging from 1% to 9% magnification of both eyes in increments of 1%. The aniseikonia tolerance range (ATR) was defined as the percentage aniseikonia in which the stereoacuity threshold was maintained. Results We examined 32 patients with a median age of 65 (95% CI: 62–66 years), CDVA better than 6/7.5 (0.1 logMAR), and median near visual acuity better than 6/6 (0.0 logMAR). The median stereoacuity threshold was 60 arcsec (maximum 30, minimum 120). We observed large inter‐individual differences in ATR: 6/31 (19%) participants had an ATR of ≤1%, 1/31 (3%) had an ATR of 1‐5%, 7/31 (22%) had an ATR of 5‐10%, and 17/31 (54%) had an ATR of >10%. Conclusion We present a reliable method for measuring the amount of aniseikonia that a person can tolerate without impairing stereopsis. We report large inter‐individual differences in tolerance of aniseikonia.

Purpose: This study examines aniseikonia, Aniseikonia tolerance range (ATR), anisometropia and patient-reported outcomes (PRO) in an anisometropic population compared with a non-anisometropic population. The relationship between anisometropia and aniseikonia is determined, and the correlations between aniseikonia, anisometropia and ATR versus PRO are described. Methods: One hundred and twenty-three patients with IOL-induced anisometropia ≥1 dioptre (D) (the anisometropic group) and 17 patients who had IOL-induced anisometropia <1 D (the control group) were included. Best corrected visual acuity, aniseikonia, ATR and stereoacuity were examined, and two questionnaires were completed: convergence insufficiency symptom survey (CISS) and Visual Function Questionnaire (VFQ-39). Results: One hundred and thirteen patients had anisometropia >1 and <3 D, and 10 patients had anisometropia >3 D. There was no difference in PRO between the control group and the anisometropic group (Mann-Whitney, p-values VFQ: 0.96, CISS: 0.06). There was no correlation between anisometropia and PRO (Spearman's rank correlation test p-values: VFQ: 0.54, CISS: 0.57). Patients with low ATR were more sensitive towards anisometropia and had lower PRO than patients with high ATR (Mann-Whitney, p-values: VFQ: 0.0008, CISS: 0.11). A large tolerance of aniseikonia was observed. Conclusion: No correlation between PRO and anisometropia or aniseikonia was found. Patients with low ATR are at risk of visual complaints if they are exposed to IOL-induced anisometropia. ATR might be a future screening tool in cataract patients.

IMPORTANCE Persistent (>4 weeks) postconcussion symptoms (PPCS) are challenging for both patients and clinicians. There is uncertainty about the effect of commonly applied nonpharmacological treatments for the management of PPCS. OBJECTIVE To systematically assess and summarize evidence for outcomes related to 7 nonpharmacological interventions for PPCS in adults (aged >18 years) and provide recommendations for clinical practice. DATA SOURCES Systematic literature searches were performed via Embase, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, CINAHL, PEDro, OTseeker, and Cochrane Reviews (via MEDLINE and Embase) from earliest possible publication year to March 3, 2020. The literature was searched for prior systematic reviews and primary studies. To be included, studies had to be intervention studies with a control group and focus on PPCS. STUDY SELECTION A multidisciplinary guideline panel selected interventions based on frequency of use and need for decision support among clinicians, including early information and advice, graded physical exercise, vestibular rehabilitation, manual treatment of neck and back, oculomotor vision treatment, psychological treatment, and interdisciplinary coordinated rehabilitative treatment. To be included, studies had to be intervention studies within the areas of the predefined clinical questions, include a control group, and focus on symptoms after concussion or mild traumatic brain injury. DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS Extraction was performed independently by multiple observers. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were used for data abstraction and data quality assessment. Included studies were assessed using the Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews (AMSTAR) tool and the Cochrane Risk of Bias (randomized clinical trials) tool. Meta-analysis was performed for all interventions where possible. Random-effects models were used to calculate pooled estimates of effects. The level and certainty of evidence was rated and recommendations formulated according to the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations (GRADE) framework. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURESAll outcomes were planned before data collection began according to a specified protocol. The primary outcomes were the collective burden of PPCS and another outcome reflecting the focus of a particular intervention (eg, physical functioning after graded exercise intervention). RESULTSEleven systematic reviews were identified but did not contribute any primary studies; 19 randomized clinical trials comprising 2007 participants (1064 women [53.0%]) were separately (continued)

The parameters which describe how refraction, accommodation and convergence develop during childhood are well understood, but the possible interdependencies between these agerelated changes are not known. Hence it is unknown whether refractive development is associated with development of accommodation and convergence. Four-hundred and fifty-two unselected 7-13 year old school children were subjected to autorefraction and unilateral cover test, and measurement of visual acuity, amplitude of accommodation, monocular accommodation facility, near phoria, near point of convergence, and positive and negative fusional vergence using subjective techniques. Linear regression was used to study the correlation of these parameters with age, followed by study of correlations between age-dependent parameters. There was a significant reduction in hyperopia (0.13 D/year, 95% CI [-0.20, -0.06]), a significant increase in the monocular accommodation facility (0:48 cpm/year, 95% CI [0.18, 0.79]), and a non-significant shift towards convergence of the midpoint of the fusional range (0.43 ΔD/year, 95% CI [0.12, 0.74]) with age. Age-dependent variables were not significantly correlated. Autorefraction was not correlated with any other variable. None of the other parameters showed any significant correlations with age. Age-related changes in refraction, monocular accommodation facility and midpoint of fusional range were independent. This indicates that the development of these parameters involves separate processes, and suggests that therapeutic intervention may be performed on these parameters individually without a derived effect on the other age-related parameters.

Purpose: To assess whether small-incision lenticule extraction (SMILE) for high myopia reduces the binocular visual function assessed by stereoacuity, binocular visual acuity, binocular contrast sensitivity, and binocular summation. Setting: University hospital. Design: Prospective case series. Methods: Patients with a myopic spherical equivalent of at least 6.00 diopters (D) scheduled for SMILE aimed at emmetropia were included. Psychophysical testing was performed with correction preoperatively but no correction postoperatively. Stereoacuity was assessed with the Randot Circles test and the near Frisby test, visual acuity (monocular and binocular) was assessed with high-contrast Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study charts, and contrast sensitivity (monocular and binocular) was assessed with the Pelli-Robson chart and the Freiburg Acuity and Contrast Test. Binocular summation was calculated by comparing the binocular score against the best monocular score. Results: A total of 138 eyes of 69 patients were included. The mean spherical equivalent changed from −7.46 D ± 1.06 (SD) to −0.23 D ± 0.40 postoperatively. Stereoacuity did not change significantly postoperatively; median change (interquartile range) was −0.32 (−6.21 to 1.55) seconds of arc with the Frisby test and 0.00 (−7.5 to 5.0) seconds of arc with the Randot test (P ≥ .06). Binocular postoperative uncorrected distance visual acuity was not different from the preoperative corrected distance visual acuity (P = .40). Contrast sensitivity declined slightly monocularly with both tests of contrast sensitivity but was unaltered binocularly (P ≥ .08). Binocular summation for visual acuity and contrast sensitivity was unaltered following surgery (P ≥ .09). Conclusions: SMILE for high myopia did not reduce the binocular function assessed by stereoacuity, binocular visual acuity, binocular contrast sensitivity, and binocular summation.

This study evaluates current available endpoints for epiretinal membrane (ERM) surgery and examine their correlation to patient reported outcomes (PRO). Methods: Retrospective study including 38 eyes of 38 patients who underwent cataract extraction and subsequent vitrectomy for idiopathic ERM. The fellow eye was phakic with good visual acuity. The registered outcomes were monocular and binocular visual acuity, stereoacuity, M-chart metamorphopsia score, aniseikonia and aniseikonia tolerance range (ATR). Two questionnaires were completed: the convergence insufficiency symptom survey and Visual Function Questionnaire (VFQ-39). Results: Median total aniseikonia was 11% (range 0-35). There was a statistically significant correlation between the mean total M-chart score of the study eye and VFQ-Near (Spearman rho: VFQ-Near: À0.54, p < 0.01). There was no correlation between the best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) of the project eye, binocular BCVA, stereoacuity, ATR or mean total aniseikonia and PRO (Spearman p-values > 0.05). There was no correlation between mean total aniseikonia and mean total M-chart score (Spearman rho: 0.21 p = 0.26). There was a large variation between the mean total M-chart scores and questionnaire results. Conclusion: The mean total M-chart score is currently the best end-points to predict PRO of ERM surgery; however, it is possible to have high M-chart values and have no visual complaints.

Background To determine the sensitivity and specificity of school nurse screening for hypermetropia and convergence insufficiency exophoria (CIE) in schoolchildren. Methods Near point of convergence and distance visual acuity with +2.00D lenses were measured in 2097 children (6–15 years) during standard school nurse screening in the municipality of Randers, Denmark. One hundred and ninety‐four children with positive screening results (near point of convergence >10 cm and/or distance visual acuity improved or maintained with +2.00D) and 182 controls with negative screening results received a full vision assessment, including cycloplegic refraction and orthoptic evaluation. Results Sensitivity and specificity of screening was 0.75 and 0.69 for CIE and 0.59 and 0.87 for hypermetropia (≥+2.00), respectively. While precision of screening for CIE was significantly higher for symptomatic children aged 9–15 than for younger and asymptomatic children, precision of screening for hypermetropia was independent of age and presence of visually related symptoms. Conclusion While precision of screening for CIE and hypermetropia (>+2.00) was low, additional vision evaluation of children older than 9 years with asthenopic symptoms identified most children with CIE with a low absolute number of false positives.

Purpose Convergence insufficiency (CI) is characterized by abnormal vergence eye movement frequently accompanied by abnormal accommodation and subjective symptoms, such as headache, blurred vision, and diplopia. CI is treated with vergence and accommodation exercises that are integrated so that the relative contributions of vergence and accommodation exercises to the outcome are concealed. The purpose of the present study was to determine the individual contributions of vergence and accommodation exercises for the treatment of CI in school children. Methods In a prospective crossover study 44 children aged 9 to 13 years with CI were randomized to perform either vergence exercises followed by accommodation exercises each for 6 weeks or the 2 treatment regimes in the reverse order. The outcome measures were recovery from CI and the parameters vergence facility, positive fusional vergence, near point of convergence, monocular amplitude, and facility of accommodation. Results After the first 6-week period, full recovery from CI was significantly more frequent in the group commencing vergence exercises than in the group commencing monocular accommodation exercises ( p = 0.01), whereas there was no significant difference between these proportions after the second 6-week period ( p = 0.45). Vergence facility and positive fusional vergence improved significantly more after the period with vergence exercises than after the accommodation exercises, whereas there was no significant difference between the effects of the two types of exercises on the other studied parameters. Conclusions Vergence treatment induces a faster recovery of CI than accommodation treatment in school children. This may be used to improve compliance and success rate of the treatment.