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Facial action unit (AU) detectors have performed well when trained and tested within the same domain. Do AU detectors transfer to new domains in which they have not been trained? To answer this question, we review literature on cross-domain transfer and conduct experiments to address limitations of prior research. We evaluate both deep and shallow approaches to AU detection (CNN and SVM, respectively) in two large, well-annotated, publicly available databases, Expanded BP4D+ and GFT. The databases differ in observational scenarios, participant characteristics, range of head pose, video resolution, and AU base rates. For both approaches and databases, performance decreased with change in domain, often to below the threshold needed for behavioral research. Decreases were not uniform, however. They were more pronounced for GFT than for Expanded BP4D+ and for shallow relative to deep learning. These findings suggest that more varied domains and deep learning approaches may be better suited for promoting generalizability. Until further improvement is realized, caution is warranted when applying AU classifiers from one domain to another.

Facial action units (AUs) relate to specific local facial regions. Recent efforts in automated AU detection have focused on learning the facial patch representations to detect specific AUs. These efforts have encountered three hurdles. First, they implicitly assume that facial patches are robust to head rotation; yet non-frontal rotation is common. Second, mappings between AUs and patches are defined a priori, which ignores co-occurrences among AUs. And third, the dynamics of AUs are either ignored or modeled sequentially rather than simultaneously as in human perception. Inspired by recent advances in human perception, we propose a dynamic patch-attentive deep network, called D-PAttNet, for AU detection that (i) controls for 3D head and face rotation, (ii) learns mappings of patches to AUs, and (iii) models spatiotemporal dynamics. D-PAttNet approach significantly improves upon existing state of the art.

I. MOTIVATIONAutomated facial affect recognition is crucial to multiple domains (e.g., health, education, entertainment). Commercial tools are available but costly and of unknown validity. Opensource ones [1] lack user-friendly GUI for use by nonprogrammers. For both types, evidence of domain transfer and options for retraining for use in new domains typically are lacking.Deep approaches have two key advantages. They typically outperform shallow ones for facial affect recognition [2], [3], [4]. And pre-trained models provided by deep approaches can be fine tuned with new datasets to optimize performance.We demo AFAR 1 : an open-source, deep-learning based, user-friendly tool for automated facial affect recognition.

Facial action unit (AU) detectors have performed well when trained and tested within the same domain. How well do AU detectors transfer to domains in which they have not been trained? We review literature on cross-domain transfer and conduct experiments to address limitations of prior research. We evaluate generalizability in four publicly available databases. EB + (an expanded version of BP4D + ), Sayette GFT, DISFA and UNBC Shoulder Pain (SP). The databases differ in observational scenarios, context, participant diversity, range of head pose, video resolution, and AU base rates. In most cases performance decreased with change in domain, often to below the threshold needed for behavioral research. However, exceptions were noted. Deep and shallow approaches generally performed similarly and average results were slightly better for deep model compared to shallow one. Occlusion sensitivity maps revealed that local specificity was greater for AU detection within than cross domains. The findings suggest that more varied domains and deep learning approaches may be better suited for generalizability and suggest the need for more attention to characteristics that vary between domains. Until further improvement is realized, caution is warranted when applying AU classifiers from one domain to another.

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Automated measurement of affective behavior in psychopathology has been limited primarily to screening and diagnosis. While useful, clinicians more often are concerned with whether patients are improving in response to treatment. Are symptoms abating, is affect becoming more positive, are unanticipated side effects emerging? When treatment includes neural implants, need for objective, repeatable biometrics tied to neurophysiology becomes especially pressing. We used automated face analysis to assess treatment response to deep brain stimulation (DBS) in two patients with intractable obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). One was assessed intraoperatively following implantation and activation of the DBS device. The other was assessed three months post-implantation. Both were assessed during DBS on and o conditions. Positive and negative valence were quantified using a CNN trained on normative data of 160 non-OCD participants. Thus, a secondary goal was domain transfer of the classifiers. In both contexts, DBS-on resulted in marked positive affect. In response to DBS-off, affect flattened in both contexts and alternated with increased negative affect in the outpatient setting. Mean AUC for domain transfer was 0.87. These findings suggest that parametric variation of DBS is strongly related to affective behavior and may introduce vulnerability for negative affect in the event that DBS is discontinued.