The increasing demand for recombinant vaccine antigens or immunotherapeutic molecules calls into question the universality of current protein expression systems. Vaccine production can require relatively low amounts of expressed materials, but represents an extremely diverse category consisting of different target antigens with marked structural differences. In contrast, monoclonal antibodies, by definition share key molecular characteristics and require a production system capable of very large outputs, which drives the quest for highly efficient and cost-effective systems. In discussing expression systems, the primary assumption is that a universal production platform for vaccines and immunotherapeutics will unlikely exist. This review provides an overview of the evolution of traditional expression systems, including mammalian cells, yeast and E.coli, but also alternative systems such as other bacteria than E. coli, transgenic animals, insect cells, plants and microalgae, Tetrahymena thermophila, Leishmania tarentolae, filamentous fungi, cell free systems, and the incorporation of non-natural amino acids.

Background  Although H5N1 avian influenza viruses pose the most obvious imminent pandemic threat, there have been several recent zoonotic incidents involving transmission of H7 viruses to humans. Vaccines are the primary public health defense against pandemics, but reliance on embryonated chickens eggs to propagate vaccine and logistic problems posed by the use of new technology may slow our ability to respond rapidly in a pandemic situation. Objectives  We sought to generate an H7 candidate vaccine virus suitable for administration to humans whose generation and amplification avoided the use of eggs. Methods  We generated a suitable H7 vaccine virus by reverse genetics. This virus, known as RD3, comprises the internal genes of A/Puerto Rico/8/34 with surface antigens of the highly pathogenic avian strain A/Chicken/Italy/13474/99 (H7N1). The multi‐basic amino acid site in the HA gene, associated with high pathogenicity in chickens, was removed. Results  The HA modification did not alter the antigenicity of the virus and the resultant single basic motif was stably retained following several passages in Vero and PER.C6 cells. RD3 was attenuated for growth in embryonated eggs, chickens, and ferrets. RD3 induced an antibody response in infected animals reactive against both the homologous virus and other H7 influenza viruses associated with recent infection by H7 viruses in humans. Conclusions  This is the first report of a candidate H7 vaccine virus for use in humans generated by reverse genetics and propagated entirely in mammalian tissue culture. The vaccine has potential use against a wide range of H7 strains.

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Background  In case of influenza pandemic, a robust, easy and clean technique to prepare reassortants would be necessary. Objectives  Using reverse genetics, we prepared two vaccine reassortants (A/H5N1 × PR8 and A/H7N1 × PR8) exhibiting the envelope glycoproteins from non‐pathogenic avian viruses, A/Turkey/Wisconsin/68 (A/H5N9) and A/Rhea/New Caledonia/39482/93 (A/H7N1) and the internal proteins of the attenuated human virus A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (H1N1). Methods  The transfection was accomplished using a mixture of Vero and chicken embryo cells both of which are currently being used for vaccine manufacturing. Results  This process was reproducible, resulting in consistent recovery of influenza viruses in 6 days. Because it is mainly the A/H5N1 strain that has recently crossed the human barrier, it is the A/PR8 × A/H5N1 reassortant (RG5) that was further amplified, either in embryonated hen eggs or Vero cells, to produce vaccine pre‐master seed stocks that met quality control specifications. Safety testing in chickens and ferrets was performed to assess the non‐virulence of the reassortant, and finally analysis using chicken and ferret sera immunized with the RG5 virus showed that the vaccine candidate elicited an antibody response cross‐reactive with the Hong Kong 1997 and 2003 H5N1 strains but not the Vietnam/2004 viruses. Conclusions  The seeds obtained could be used as part of a pandemic vaccine strain ‘library’ available in case of propagation in humans of a new highly pathogenic avian strain.

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