We have obtained polyamine-compacted DNA and analyzed it by electron microscopy employing the method described by Dubochet, suitable for the study of complexes in which the main interactions are of ionic character. In addition, we have developed a simple biochemical method, based on the action of pancreatic DNase I, to demonstrate the condensation of DNA with spermidine. DNA-spermidine complexes are resistant to the action of DNase I, and there is a strong correlation between the presence of condensed DNA forms, both as toroids and as cylinders, and the insensitivity to DNase I activity. We have also shown that pBR322 DNA-spermidine complexes are transcriptionally active in the presence of Escherichia coli RNA polymerase. This supports the data concerning the biological activity of spermidine-condensed DNA.

Non-bilayer phospholipid arrangements are three-dimensional structures that can form when anionic phospholipids with an intermediate form of the tubular hexagonal phase II (H(II)), such as phosphatidic acid, phosphatidylserine or cardiolipin, are present in a bilayer of lipids. The drugs chlorpromazine and procainamide, which trigger a lupus-like disease in humans, can induce the formation of non-bilayer phospholipid arrangements, and we have previously shown that liposomes with non-bilayer arrangements induced by these drugs cause an autoimmune disease resembling human lupus in mice. Here we show that liposomes with non-bilayer phospholipid arrangements induced by Mn²⁺ cause a similar disease in mice. We extensively characterize the physical properties and immunological reactivity of liposomes made of the zwitterionic lipid phosphatidylcholine and a H(II)-preferring lipid, in the absence or presence of Mn²⁺, chlorpromazine or procainamide. We use an hapten inhibition assay to define the epitope recognized by sera of mice with the disease, and by a monoclonal antibody that binds specifically to non-bilayer phospholipid arrangements, and we report that phosphorylcholine and glycerolphosphorylcholine, which form part of the polar region of phosphatidylcholine, are the only haptens that block the binding of the tested antibodies to non-bilayer arrangements. We propose a model in which the negatively charged H(II)-preferring lipids form an inverted micelle by electrostatic interactions with the positive charge of Mn²⁺, chlorpromazine or procainamide; the inverted micelle is inserted into the bilayer of phosphatidylcholine, whose polar regions are exposed and become targets for antibody production. This model may be relevant in the pathogenesis of human lupus.

Antibodies recognizing non-bilayer phospholipid arrangements (NPA) in membrane models and in cell membranes in vivo, triggered an autoimmune-like disease in mice. This exhibited features similar to human lupus and was induced by injecting mice either with the H308 monoclonal antibody specific to NPA, with sera from mice which already had developed the autoimmune disease, or with liposomes treated with the NPA inductors chlorpromazine or procainamide; or with these NPA inductors alone. All these procedures revealed the involvement of antibodies to non-bilayer phospholipids in inducing this autoimmune-like disease. Unraveling the mechanisms of these antibodies might contribute to a better understanding of the molecular and immunological basis of autoimmune diseases like lupus and, hopefully, towards the development of better therapeutic strategies.

Age-related changes in immunity have been shown to highly influence morbidity and mortality. The aim of the present work was to study the effects of environmental enrichment (EE) (8-16 weeks) on several functions and oxidative stress parameters of peritoneal leukocytes, previously described as health and longevity markers, in mice at different ages, namely adult (44 +/- 4 weeks), old (69 +/- 4 weeks), and very old (92 +/- 4 weeks). Mortality rates were monitored in control and enriched animals, and effects on survival of long-term exposure to EE until natural death were determined. The results showed that exposure to EE was efficient in improving the function (i.e., macrophage chemotaxis and phagocytosis, lymphocyte chemotaxis and proliferation, natural killer cell activity, interleukin-2 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels) and decreasing the oxidative-inflammatory stress (i.e., lowered oxidized glutathione content, xanthine oxidase activity, expression of Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 on CD4 and CD8 cells, and increased reduced glutathione and glutathione peroxidase and catalase activities) of immune cells. These positive effects of EE were especially remarkable in animals at older ages. Importantly, long-term exposure to EE from adult age and until natural death stands out as a useful strategy to extend longevity. Thus, the present work confirms the importance of maintaining active mental and/or physical activity aiming to improve quality of life in terms of immunity, and demonstrates that this active life must be initiated at early stages of the aging process and preserved until death to improve life span.

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Hexagonal phase (H II )-preferring lipids such as phosphatidate, cardiolipin, and phosphatidylserine form nonbilayer molecular arrangements in lipid bilayers. While their presence in biological membranes has not been established, in vitro studies suggest that alterations in membrane properties modify their function. In this study, antiphospholipid monoclonal antibodies were developed against nonbilayer structures. One of the monoclonal antibodies identifies nonplanar surfaces in liposomes and in membranes of cultured cells. These results are the first evidence that natural membranes maintain a fragile balance between bilayer and nonbilayer lipid arrangements. Therefore, these antibodies can be used to evaluate the role of H II -preferring lipids in the modulation of membrane activities. Our studies demonstrated that nonplanar surfaces are highly immunogenic. Although these structures are normally transient, their formation can be stabilized by temperature variations, drugs, antibiotics, apolar peptides, and divalent cations. Our studies demonstrated that abnormal exposure of nonbilayer arrangements may induce autoimmune responses as found in the antiphospholipid syndrome.

Summary Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi) is the causal agent of typhoid fever, a disease that primarily affects developing countries. Various antigens from this bacterium have been reported to be targets of the immune response. Recently, the S. Typhi genome has been shown to encode two porins – OmpS1 and OmpS2 – which are expressed at low levels under in vitro culture conditions. In this study, we demonstrate that immunizing mice with either OmpS1 or OmpS2 induced production of specific, long‐term antibody titres and conferred protection against S. Typhi challenge; in particular, OmpS1 was more immunogenic and conferred greater protective effects than OmpS2. We also found that OmpS1 is a Toll‐like receptor 4 (TLR4) agonist, whereas OmpS2 is a TLR2 and TLR4 agonist. Both porins induced the production of tumour necrosis factor and interleukin‐6, and OmpS2 was also able to induce interleukin‐10 production. Furthermore, OmpS1 induced the over‐expression of MHC II molecules in dendritic cells and OmpS2 induced the over‐expression of CD40 molecules in macrophages and dendritic cells. Co‐immunization of OmpS1 or OmpS2 with ovalbumin (OVA) increased anti‐OVA antibody titres, the duration and isotype diversity of the OVA‐specific antibody response, and the proliferation of T lymphocytes. These porins also had adjuvant effects on the antibody response when co‐immunized with either the Vi capsular antigen from S. Typhi or inactivated 2009 pandemic influenza A(H1N1) virus [A(H1N1)pdm09]. Taken together, the data indicate that OmpS1 and OmpS2, despite being expressed at low levels under in vitro culture conditions, are potent protective immunogens with intrinsic adjuvant properties.

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