No abstract

Ocean acidification (OA) is altering the chemistry of the world’s oceans at rates unparalleled in the past roughly 1 million years. Understanding the impacts of this rapid change in baseline carbonate chemistry on marine organisms needs a precise, mechanistic understanding of physiological responses to carbonate chemistry. Recent experimental work has shown shell development and growth in some bivalve larvae, have direct sensitivities to calcium carbonate saturation state that is not modulated through organismal acid-base chemistry. To understand different modes of action of OA on bivalve larvae, we experimentally tested how pH, PCO2, and saturation state independently affect shell growth and development, respiration rate, and initiation of feeding in Mytilus californianus embryos and larvae. We found, as documented in other bivalve larvae, that shell development and growth were affected by aragonite saturation state, and not by pH or PCO2. Respiration rate was elevated under very low pH (~7.4) with no change between pH of ~ 8.3 to ~7.8. Initiation of feeding appeared to be most sensitive to PCO2, and possibly minor response to pH under elevated PCO2. Although different components of physiology responded to different carbonate system variables, the inability to normally develop a shell due to lower saturation state precludes pH or PCO2 effects later in the life history. However, saturation state effects during early shell development will carry-over to later stages, where pH or PCO2 effects can compound OA effects on bivalve larvae. Our findings suggest OA may be a multi-stressor unto itself. Shell development and growth of the native mussel, M. californianus, was indistinguishable from the Mediterranean mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis, collected from the southern U.S. Pacific coast, an area not subjected to seasonal upwelling. The concordance in responses suggests a fundamental OA bottleneck during development of the first shell material affected only by saturation state.

Increasing anthropogenic carbon dioxide is altering marine carbonate chemistry through a process called ocean acidification. Many calcium carbonate forming organisms are sensitive to changes in marine carbonate chemistry, especially mollusk bivalve larvae at the initial shell building stage. Rapid calcification, limited energy reserves, and more exposed calcification surfaces, are traits at this stage that increase vulnerability to ocean acidification through our previously argued kinetic‐energetic hypothesis. These developmental traits are common to broadcast spawning bivalve species that are the focus of most ocean acidification studies to date. Some oyster species brood their young, which results in slower development of the embryos through the initial shell formation stage. We examined the responses of the brooding Olympia oyster, Ostrea lurida, during their initial shell building stage. We extracted fertilized eggs from, O. lurida, prior to shell development, then exposed developing embryos to a wide range of marine carbonate chemistry conditions. Surprisingly, O. lurida showed no acute negative response to any ocean acidification treatments. Compared to the broadcast spawning Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, calcification rate and standardized endogenous energy lipid consumption rate were nearly 10 and 50 times slower, respectively. Our results suggest that slow shell building may lessen the energetic burden of acidification at this stage and provides additional support for our kinetic‐energetic hypothesis. Furthermore, these results may represent an example of exaptation; fitness conveyed by a coopted trait that evolved for another purpose, a concept largely lacking in the current perspective of adaptation and global climate change.

Gimenez, I, et al. 2018. Ocean acidification stress index for shellfish (OASIS): Linking Pacific oyster larval survival and exposure to variable carbonate chemistry regimes. Elem Sci Anth, 6: 51.

The carbonate system in two contrasting fjords, Rivers Inlet and Bute Inlet, on the coast of British Columbia, Canada, was evaluated to characterize the mechanisms driving carbonate chemistry dynamics and assess the impact of anthropogenic carbon. Differences in the character of deep water exchange between these fjords were inferred from their degree of exposure to continental shelf water and their salinity relationships with total alkalinity and total dissolved inorganic carbon, which determined seawater buffering capacity. Seawater buffering capacity differed between fjords and resulted in distinct carbonate system characteristics with implications on calcium carbonate saturation states and sensitivity to increasing anthropogenic carbon inputs. Saturation states of both aragonite and calcite mineral phases of calcium carbonate were seasonally at or below saturation throughout the entire water column in Bute Inlet, while only aragonite was seasonally under-saturated in portions of the water column in Rivers Inlet. The mean annual saturation states of aragonite in Rivers Inlet and calcite in Bute Inlet deep water layers have declined to below saturation within the last several decades due to anthropogenic carbon accumulation, and similar declines to undersaturation are projected in their surface layers as anthropogenic carbon continues to accumulate. This study demonstrates that the degree of fjord water exposure to open shelf water influences the uptake and sensitivity to anthropogenic carbon through processes affecting seawater buffering capacity, and that reduced uptake but greater sensitivity occurs where distance to ocean source waters and freshwater dilution are greater.

Carbonate chemistry variables such as PCO2, pH, and mineral saturation state (Ω) are commonly thought of as covarying in open‐ocean settings but have decoupled over geologic time‐scales and among modern dynamic coastal margins and estuaries. Predicting responses of vulnerable coastal organisms to past, present, and future ocean acidification (OA) scenarios requires the empirical identification of organismal sensitivity thresholds to individual carbonate chemistry parameters. Conversely, most OA experiments involve chemistry manipulations that result in covariance of carbonate system variables. We developed the Dynamic Ocean Acidification Manipulation Experimental System (DOAMES)—a feed‐forward, flow‐through carbonate chemistry control system capable of decoupling PCO2, pH, or Ω by independently manipulating total alkalinity (TAlk) and total inorganic carbon (TCO2). DOAMES proof‐of‐concept can manipulate source seawater with stable or variable carbonate chemistry and produce experimental treatments with constant and dynamic carbonate chemistry regimes. The combination of dynamic input and output allows for offset treatments that impose a ΔPCO2 on naturally variable conditions. After overcoming several operational challenges, DOAMES is capable of simultaneously generating three different experimental treatments within 1% ± 1% of TCO2 and TAlk targets. The achieved precision and accuracy resulted in the successful decoupling of pH and ΩAr in five trials. We tested the viability of sensitive bivalve embryos raised in DOAMES‐manipulated seawater and found no difference in development when compared to the control, demonstrating DOAMES suitability for organismal studies. DOAMES provides a novel tool to evaluate organismal effects of exposure to decoupled carbonate system variables and to past, current, and future carbonate chemistry scenarios.