Data availabilitySummary statistics generated by COVID-19 Host Genetics Initiative are available online (https://www.covid19hg.org/results/r6/). The analyses described here use the freeze 6 data. The COVID-19 Host Genetics Initiative continues to regularly release new data freezes. Summary statistics for samples from individuals of non-European ancestry are not currently available owing to the small individual sample sizes of these groups, but the results for 23 loci lead variants are reported in Supplementary Table 3. Individual-level data can be requested directly from the authors of the contributing studies, listed in Supplementary Table 1.

BackgroundSmoking is a major single cause of preventable morbidity and premature mortality. Tobacco use among adolescents is a significant public health problem as smoking behaviour is undeniably established in adolescence. While cigarette smoking among adolescents has been a significant public health problem for years, waterpipe smoking is considered to be a new global public health threat. The objectives of this study were to describe trends of cigarette smoking and the prevalence of waterpipe smoking and to study the association between cigarette and waterpipe smoking among adolescents in Estonia.MethodsThis study was based on a four-yearly HBSC survey of health behaviour among school-aged children conducted in 1994–2006 in Estonia. It was a school-based survey of a nationally representative sample using standardized methodology. The target group of the survey were 11-, 13-, and 15-year-old schoolchildren (N = 13826), 6656 boys and 7170 girls. Cigarette and waterpipe smoking was determined on a 4-stage scale: every day, at least once a week, less than once a week, not smoking. Logistic regression analysis was applied to examine gender- and age-specific smoking trends and to study the association between cigarette and waterpipe smoking.ResultsPrevalence of smoking was higher among boys than girls in all age groups during the whole study period. The prevalence of cigarette smoking increased in 1994–2002 and then slightly decreased in both genders. The increase in smoking was larger among girls. Among girls, daily smoking increased during the whole study period. Among 15-year-old schoolchildren one-third of the boys and one quarter of the girls were cigarette smokers, 21% of the boys and 12% of the girls were daily smokers in 2006. One fourth of the boys and one sixth of the girls were waterpipe smokers. A logistic regression analysis revealed a strong association between cigarette and waterpipe smoking among schoolchildren.ConclusionThe results of this study can significantly enhance the capacity to develop and implement tobacco prevention and control programmes among the youth in Estonia.

The exposure of IPV was an important contributor to sexual risk behaviour and adverse sexual health outcomes among women of reproductive age in Estonia. Any strategy to promote sexual health should include prevention of IPV and other forms of violence against women with the strengthening of women's sexual and reproductive rights.

Objective: The objective of this study was to estimate gender-specific associations between metabolic syndrome (MS) and high-molecular-weight (HMW) adiponectin in an Estonian adult population. Methods: Plasma HMW adiponectin was measured in 458 subjects (191 men) who participated in a population-based cross-sectional multicenter study (nZ495) on the prevalence of metabolic disorders in Estonia. MS was defined according to National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria. Results: Median HMW adiponectin levels (mg/ml) were significantly lower among all subjects with MS compared with subjects without MS: 2.1 vs 2.8 in men (PZ0.002) and 3.1 vs 5.1 in women (P!0.001). In a fully adjusted, logistic regression model containing HMW adiponectin, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), BMI, and age, HMW adiponectin was significantly associated with MS only in women. Comparison of HMW adiponectin and HOMA-IR as markers for MS indicated that HOMA-IR predicted MS better than did HMW adiponectin in both genders. However, after adjusting for age and BMI, HOMA-IR was a significantly better predictor only in men. HMW adiponectin and HOMA-IR predicted the presence of MS at the same level in women. Areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves for HMW adiponectin and HOMA-IR were 0.833 vs 0.88 in men (PZ0.02) and 0.897 vs 0.907 in women (PZ0.5). Conclusions: These data suggest that the association between low HMW adiponectin levels and presence of MS might be stronger in women compared with men.

BackgroundSelf-rated health (SRH) and socioeconomic position (SEP) as important determinants of health differences are associated with health and economic changes in society.The objectives of this paper were (1) to describe trends in SRH and (2) to analyze associations between SRH and SEP among adults in Estonia in 1996–2014.MethodsThe study was based on a 25–64-year-old subsample (n = 18757) of postal cross-sectional surveys conducted every second year in Estonia during 1990–2014. SRH was measured using five-point scale and was dichotomized to good and less-than-good. Standardized prevalence of SRH was calculated for each study year. Poisson regression with likelihood ratio test was performed for testing trends of SRH over study years. Age, nationality, marital status, education, work status and income were used to determine SEP. Logistic regression analysis was used to assess association between SRH and SEP.ResultsThe prevalence of dichotomized good self-rated health increased significantly over the whole study period with slight decrease in 2008–2010. Until 2002, good SRH was slightly more prevalent among men, but after that, among women. Good SRH was significantly associated with younger age, higher education and income and also with employment status among both, men and women. Good SRH was more prevalent among Estonian women and less prevalent among single men.ConclusionsThere was a definite increase of good SRH over two decades in Estonia following economic downturn between 2008 and 2010. Good SRH was associated with higher SEP over the study period. Further research is required to study the possible reasons behind increase of good SRH, and it’s association with SEP among adults in Estonia.

Self-perceived health was poorer in Estonia than in Finland, but Estonia shares with Finland a similar socioeconomic pattern of health. Further research is needed to monitor socioeconomic variations in health behaviour and mortality in both countries.

BackgroundThe metabolic consequences of obesity are associated with an imbalance of adipocytokines, e.g. adiponectin. However, some obese subjects remain metabolically healthy and have adiponectin levels similar to normal body weight subjects. Current estimates of the prevalence of obesity in Estonia have relied only on self-report data.ObjectivesTo estimate the prevalence of obesity in Estonia, to test for associations between HMW adiponectin and metabolic risk factors and to test if HMW adiponectin levels differentiate metabolically healthy and metabolically unhealthy subjects.MethodsWe conducted a population-based cross-sectional multicentre study to gather history, examination and blood test results for 495 subjects aged 20–74. Metabolically healthy subjects were free from hypertension, dyslipidaemia, impaired glucose regulation and insulin resistance. Metabolically unhealthy subjects had at least one of these four metabolic abnormalities.ResultsThe prevalence of obesity was 29% in men and 34% in women. HMW adiponectin was positively correlated with HDL cholesterol and negatively correlated with triglycerides, obesity, insulin resistance and blood glucose. This effect was driven by metabolically unhealthy subjects in men, but by both metabolically healthy and metabolically unhealthy subjects in women. Metabolically healthy women had higher HMW adiponectin levels than metabolically unhealthy women. 12% of all obese subjects were metabolically healthy, and their HMW adiponectin levels were similar to normal weight subjects.ConclusionsObesity is more prevalent in Estonian adults than previously thought. HMW adiponectin levels were associated with various metabolic risk factors in metabolically healthy women but not in metabolically healthy men. For both genders, HMW adiponectin differentiates metabolically healthy obese subjects from metabolically unhealthy obese subjects.

BackgroundIn developed countries, smoking spreads through society like an epidemic in which adults from higher socioeconomic groups are the first to adopt and earlier to quit smoking, and in which exists a lag in adoption of smoking between men and women.The objective of this study was to describe trends in daily and occasional smoking, to investigate association between smoking status and education, and to examine if the associations in 1990–2010 in Estonia fit the pattern predicted by the model of tobacco epidemic.MethodsThe study was based on a 20–64-year-old subsample (n = 18740) of nationally representative postal cross-sectional surveys conducted every second year in Estonia during 1990–2010. Cigarette smoking and education were examined. χ2 test for trend was used to determine daily and occasional smoking trends over study years. Multinomial logistic regression model was used to test educational differences in daily and occasional smoking for every study year. Adjusted relative risk ratios (RRRs) with 95% confidence intervals were calculated.ResultsIn 1990–2010, daily smoking varied largely between genders showing decreasing trend among men, but not among women. In 2010, one third of men and one fifth of women were daily smokers. Daily smoking was not clearly associated with education among men in 1990–1994 and among women in 1990–2000. Men revealed inverse relationship between daily smoking and education since 1996, but women since 2002. In 2010, compared to men and women with higher education, relative risk ratio of daily smoking was 2.92 (95% CI = 2.01–4.25) among men and 2.29 (95% CI = 1.65–3.17) among women with secondary education, but 4.98 (95% CI 3.12–7.94) among men and 6.62 (95% CI = 4.07–10.76) among women with basic education.In 1990–2010, occasional smoking was stable and similar (varying between 7–10%) among men and women, no association with education was found.ConclusionsDaily smoking patterns in Estonia fit the model of tobacco epidemic in developed countries. Educational differences in daily smoking highlight the importance of addressing smoking behaviour in the general population by educational subgroups in Estonia.