Micropropagation protocol of Oriental Hybrid Lilium cv. Ravenna was developed using bulb scale segments (Basal and Tip) as explants. Surface sterilization of healthy bulb scales with carbendazim 200 ppm for 30 min, then 0.1 percent mercuric chloride for 10 min, then 70% ethyl alcohol for 30 s was superior to all other treatments in recording highest culture asepsis (77.08%) and higher explant survival (86.12%). Explant survival was higher in basal segments (88.54%) compared to tip segments (85.52%). Highest culture establishment was recorded in basal scale segments (68.26%) followed by tip scale segments (55.21%). MS medium augmented with 0.50 mgl −1 Naphthalene acetic acid and 2.0 mgl −1 . 6-Benzylamino Purine recorded maximum culture establishment (76.17%), highest bulblet number/explant (5.52) with maximum length of shoots (2.20 cm) and number of leaves (3.39). This treatment combination of growth regulators resulted in highest shoot proliferation (83.33%) along with maximum shoot number (2.41explant −1 ), shoot length (2.35 cm) and leaf number (5.44) of micro shoots during proliferation stage. Rooting of explants was superior with Indole-3-butyric acid compared to Naphthalene acetic acid. Highest rooting of 92.71% along with maximum number of primary roots shoot −1 (12.06), maximum primary root length (3.17 cm) was documented in Murashige and Skoog medium added with Indole-3-butyric acid 1.50 mgl −1 with best ex vitro survival rate (98.96%) of rooted plantlets during primary hardening in perlite + vermiculite (1:1) mixture.

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Tulip is an ornamental bulbous flowering crop belonging to the Genus Tulipa and family Liliaceae. It is the first ranking bulbous ornamental plant in the world (Nayeem and Qayoom 2015). They are often the first flowers to witness the bloom in the spring. Kashmir valley is located in northern Himalayas in northwestern region of Indian subcontinent. It is the most alluring and fascinating place all over India and the home of famous “Indhra Gandhi Memorial Tulip garden”, the largest tulip garden in the entire Asia. However there are number of constraints in tulip cultivation among which bulb rot occupy a prominent place (Piwoni 2000). Bulb rot is posing problem to all the tulip growers throughout the world (De Hertogh et al. 1983). Rot symptoms were observed on tulip bulbs in field as well as in storage conditions (20-22◦C temperature with a relative humidity of 65%) in the summers of 2018 and 2019 in Shalimar fields of Kashmir. The main disease symptoms are yellow sunken spots on bulbs, purple-yellow coloration of leaves. Causal agent was isolated using tissue bit technique (Pathak 1972) on potato dextrose agar plates which where incubated at 24±2◦C . Single spore technique was used to obtain the pure isolate (Johnston and Booth 1983). The isolate covered the full plate (90mm) in ten days. The colony was dull whitish in color, flat and smooth with concentric ring formation in the culture plate with inner ring having a creamy exudation. The mycelium was septate, branched and hyaline in color and measured 3.50-5.20 µm in width with an average of 4.4 µm. Micro-conidia were hyaline, cylindrical to oval, 0-1 septa and measured 7.50-11.00×2.80-3.75 µm in size. Macro conidia were hyaline with 3-4 septa, fusiform, moderately curved which measured 21.15- 32.00×3.80-4.75 µm in size with an average of 28.50±0.21× 4.30±0.2 µm. On the basis of these morphological and cultural characteristics of the fungus, it was identified as Fusarium solani (Mar.) Sacc.,. To confirm the identity the PCR amplification was carried out for two genes Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS 1, ITS 4)and Translation Elongation factor1-alpha gene (tef1- alpha) (O’Donnell et al. 1998; White et al. 1990). BLAST analysis of the sequence obtained for both the genes showed 99% homology with F. solani sequences in GenBank and Fusarium –ID databases. The sequences were deposited in the GenBank (Accession No MN611433, MW995477). Pathogenicity test was conducted on variety orange emperor both in laboratory and polyhouse. Bulbs were divided into three sets, (three bulbs per set) one set was given injury and dipped in conidial suspension (106 conidia/ml) for 30 min, another set was kept uninjured and dipped in spore suspension of same concentration, the third set was served as control and dipped in sterilized distilled water. All the respective sets were incubated in a moist chamber maintained at a temperature of 22 ◦C to observe symptoms. The injured ones showed symptoms after 7-8 days of inoculation, whereas the uninjured bulbs showed symptoms after 11-12 days. No symptoms were observed in controlled set. A pot experiment was also conducted to carry the pathogenicity tests. Bulbs were injured with the help of sterile needle and were dipped in conidial suspension (106 conidia/ml) for 30 min (Pastrana et al. 2014). The bulbs kept for control were dipped in sterilized distilled water. Bulbs were then planted in pots maintained at 18◦C. The above ground parts of the inoculated bulbs showed symptoms like stunted growth which gradually turned yellow and did not produced flowers. The bulbs after harvesting were rotten .No symptoms were observed in controlled plants. To fulfill the Koch's postulates the fungal pathogen was re-isolated which was identified as F. solani. The pathogen is reported to cause disease in other crops (Gupta et al. 2012) but to our knowledge and on the basis of literature, this is the first report of F. solani causing bulb rot of tulip in India.

Chrysanthemum (Dendranthemum grandiflorum kitam.) is a leading flower with applied value worldwide. Flower color is an important trait that influences the commercial value of chrysanthemum cultivars. Developing new chrysanthemum cultivars with novel characteristics such as new flower colors in a time-and cost-efficient manner is the ultimate goal for breeders. Understanding the molecular mechanisms that regulate flower pigmentation may provide important implications for the rationale manipulation of flower color. To generate diverse array of flower colour mutants in chrysanthemum cv. "Candid" through mutagenesis, in vitro grown micro shoots were exposed to 10, 20, 30 and 40 Gy gamma irradiation at 100 Gy per minute and were evaluated for different parameters. The rhizogenesis parameters decreased with the increase in irradiation dose from 0 Gy to 40 Gy, while as, 10 Gy dose proved to record minimum decline as compared to the control. Survival, leaf size and number of leaves plant −1 after 8th week interval also decreased with the increasing trend of gamma irradiation dose but recorded minimum decline in plants developed from shoots irradiated with 10 Gy gamma irradiation dose with respect to the control. Apparently minimum delay in number of days to floral bud appearance took under 10 Gy as compared to control. Highest number of flower colour mutants were recorded under 10 Gy (light pink, orange pink,white and yellow). Amountable mutation frequency on the basis of flower colour was desirable in plants irradiated with least dose of 10 Gy.

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Technological advances have played a critical role in the production of flower crops, enabling farmers to maximize yields and reduce losses while also improving the quality of flowers. These advances have included the development of new breeding techniques, such as molecular marker-assisted breeding, and the use of modern technologies like high-throughput phenotyping to identify and select superior cultivars. In addition, precision farming techniques, such as the use of sensors and remote monitoring systems, have made it possible to closely monitor crop growth and optimize inputs like water and fertilizer, leading to higher yields and improved resource efficiency. Advancements in biotechnology have also resulted in the development of transgenic plants that are resistant to pests and diseases, reducing the need for chemical pesticides and improving plant health. Modern molecular genetic tools, particularly genome editing with CRISPR/Cas9 nucleases, are emerging in addition to conventional approaches of investigating these plants. Furthermore, the use of novel growing systems, such as hydroponics and vertical farming, has allowed for year-round flower production in controlled environments, mitigating the challenges associated with seasonal changes and climate variability. These innovations have also made it possible to produce high-quality flowers in urban areas, bringing fresh blooms closer to consumers. Overall, technological advances in flower crops have revolutionized the floriculture industry, enabling growers to produce high-quality flowers in a more sustainable and efficient manner. These advancements have not only improved the productivity and profitability of flower farming but have also contributed to the conservation of natural resources and the protection of the environment.