Embora a diversidade pareça ser o conceito ecológico mais intuitivo, nenhuma definição consensual foi formulada. As medidas tradicionais de diversidade, que levam em conta apenas o número de espécies e suas contribuições relativas, têm se mostrado estimativas pouco preditivas da estrutura e do funcionamento das comunidades. Medidas de diversidade que incorporem informações sobre as relações filogenéticas das espécies ou suas características funcionais podem ser melhores do que as medidas tradicionais para muitas finalidades. Apresentamos uma pequena revisão das propriedades e aplicações de algumas medidas de diversidade. Enfatizamos aqui duas abordagens recentes e promissoras, as diversidades filogenética e funcional, que têm se mostrado mais sensíveis para detectar respostas das comunidades às mudanças ambientais. Na diversidade filogenética, as relações de parentesco entre as espécies são levadas em conta, enquanto que na diversidade funcional traços que devem ter relações com o funcionamento das comunidades são considerados. Discutimos ainda os desafios e as perspectivas para o uso dessas duas abordagens na ecologia.

Seasonally dry tropical plant formations (SDTF) are likely to exhibit phylogenetic clustering owing to niche conservatism driven by a strong environmental filter (water stress), but heterogeneous edaphic environments and life histories may result in heterogeneity in degree of phylogenetic clustering. We investigated phylogenetic patterns across ecological gradients related to water availability (edaphic environment and climate) in the Caatinga, a SDTF in Brazil. Caatinga is characterized by semiarid climate and three distinct edaphic environments – sedimentary, crystalline, and inselberg –representing a decreasing gradient in soil water availability. We used two measures of phylogenetic diversity: Net Relatedness Index based on the entire phylogeny among species present in a site, reflecting long-term diversification; and Nearest Taxon Index based on the tips of the phylogeny, reflecting more recent diversification. We also evaluated woody species in contrast to herbaceous species. The main climatic variable influencing phylogenetic pattern was precipitation in the driest quarter, particularly for herbaceous species, suggesting that environmental filtering related to minimal periods of precipitation is an important driver of Caatinga biodiversity, as one might expect for a SDTF. Woody species tended to show phylogenetic clustering whereas herbaceous species tended towards phylogenetic overdispersion. We also found phylogenetic clustering in two edaphic environments (sedimentary and crystalline) in contrast to phylogenetic overdispersion in the third (inselberg). We conclude that while niche conservatism is evident in phylogenetic clustering in the Caatinga, this is not a universal pattern likely due to heterogeneity in the degree of realized environmental filtering across edaphic environments. Thus, SDTF, in spite of a strong shared environmental filter, are potentially heterogeneous in phylogenetic structuring. Our results support the need for scientifically informed conservation strategies in the Caatinga and other SDTF regions that have not previously been prioritized for conservation in order to take into account this heterogeneity.

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Species co-occurrence at fine spatial scales is expected to be nonrandom in relation to species phylogenetic relatedness and functional similarity. On the one hand, closely related species that occur together and experience similar environmental conditions are likely to share phenotypic traits due to the process of environmental filtering. On the other hand, species that are too similar are unlikely to co-occur due to competitive exclusion. We surveyed a woodland cerrado, southeastern Brazil, to test whether co-occurrence in tree species shows functional or phylogenetic structuring at fine spatial scale. Searching for correlations between an index of species co-occurrence and both functional trait differences and phylogenetic distances, we provided evidence for a predominant role of environment filters in determining the co-occurrence of functionally similar tree species in cerrado. However, we did not find any effect of phylogenetic relatedness on tree species co-occurrence. We suggest that the phylogenetic relatedness of co-occurring cerrado tree species did not present a pattern, because the species functional traits were randomly distributed on the phylogeny. Thus, phylogenetic relatedness and functional similarity do not seem to limit the co-occurrence at fine spatial scale of cerrado tree species.

During the Neogene, the Brazilian cerrado became established as a large-scale vegetation type. Cerrado lineages started to diversify less than 10 million years ago, coinciding with the rise to dominance of fl ammable C 4 grasses and the expansion of the savanna biome. Cerrado lineages are strongly associated with adaptations to fi re and have sister groups in fi re-free nearby forests, implying that the cerrado formed in situ via adaptive shifts to resist fi re. By including phylogeny into the analysis of biological traits, we investigated trait diversity of cerrado woody species in a phylogenetic context, sampling a cerrado site in central Brazil. Decomposing trait diversity along the nodes of a phylogenetic tree of cerrado woody species, we found that the rate of trait diversifi cation was higher in the past, coinciding with the major species diversifi cation of angiosperms in mid-Cretaceous, long before the cerrado originated. Some more recent adaptive shifts to resist fi re, however, must have occurred during the origin and expansion of the cerrado woody fl ora. Analysing values of each trait separately at the tips of the phylogenetic tree, we found that most trait values were randomly distributed, probably because we analysed only species that had already been fi ltered by drought, fi re, and soil. Analysing values of all traits simultaneously at the tips, we found close to root events and broad, macro-evolutionary patterns, called ' global structures ' , opposing some lineages, especially Fabaceae and Myrtaceae, with diff erent ecological strategies. Fabaceae presented compound, large, tender leaves, with high nitrogen content due to symbiosis with nitrogen-fi xing bacteria, and Myrtaceae presented simple, small, tough leaves, with low nitrogen and high potassium content. We also found relatively recent events that induced divergence of the evolutionary strategies close to the tips, called ' local structures ' , involving more recent changes in most lineages.

Understanding how biodiversity and ecosystem functioning respond to changes in the environment is fundamental to the maintenance of ecosystem function. In realistic scenarios, the biodiversityecosystem functioning path may account for only a small share of all factors determining ecosystem function. Here, we investigated the strength to which variations in environmental characteristics in a Neotropical savanna affected functional diversity and decomposition. We sought an integrative approach, testing a number of pairwise hypotheses about how the environment, biodiversity, and functioning were linked. We used structural equation modelling to connect fire frequency, soil fertility, exchangeable Al, water availability, functional diversity of woody plants, tree density, tree height, and litter decomposition rates in a causal chain. We found significant effects of soil nutrients, water availability, and Al on functional diversity and litter decomposition. Fire did not have a significant direct effect on functional diversity or litter decomposition. However, fire was connected to both variables through soil fertility. Functional diversity did not influence rates of litter decomposition. The mediated effects that emerged from pairwise interactions are encouraging not only for predicting the functional consequences of changes in environmental variables and biodiversity, but also to caution against predictions based on only environmental or only biodiversity change.