Corn stover is an abundant and underused source of lignocellulose waste biomass that can be transformed into a high-quality energy resource using hydrothermal carbonization (HTC). This investigation has focused on the effect of processing parameters on the products of HTC—namely solid fuel or hydrochar and liquid and gas fractions. HTC was conducted in a temperature-controlled small batch reactor with corn stover and deionized water under oxygen-free conditions obtained by pressurizing the reactor headspace with nitrogen gas. The properties of the hydrochar and liquid and gas fractions were evaluated as a function of the process temperature (250–350 °C), residence time (30–60 min) and biomass/water ratio (0.09–0.14). Central composite design modules in a response surface methodology were used to optimize processing parameters. The maximum mass yield, energy yield and high heating value (HHV) of the hydrochar produced were 29.91% dry weight (dw), 42.38% dw and 26.03 MJ/kg, respectively. Concentrations of acetic acid and hydrogen gas were 6.93 g/L and 0.25 v/v%, respectively. Experimental results after process optimization were in satisfactory agreement with the predicted HHV. The optimal HTC process parameters were determined to be 305 °C with a 60 min residence time and a biomass/water ratio of 0.114, yielding hydrochar with a HHV of 25.42 MJ/kg. The results confirm the feasibility of an alternative corn stover management system.

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Two different properties of fibre-metal laminate composites (FML), including the fire behaviour and mechanical properties, were experimentally studied in this paper. The fibre-metal laminate composites studied were made of aluminium alloy 2024-T3, carbon fibre, flax, kenaf and epoxy resin/hardener arranged in different forms. The aims of the study are to assess the fire behaviour of the composites using ISO2685 standard and mechanical properties of the composite after withstanding the burn-through according to the standard. The fire test was carried out using ISO2685 standard using a propane-air burner, whereby the propane gas and air serves as the fluid to the system. The universal testing machine of the 100 kN load cell and gun tunnel were used for the mechanical properties test according to each test standard. The fire results showed that three of the FML composites considered in the study are fireproof composites while carbon fibre kenaf reinforced aluminium laminate (CARALL4) is a fire resistant composite. Carbon fibre reinforced aluminium laminate with aluminium alloy at the front and the rear face (CARALL2) withstood higher flame temperature than the other FML composites with 14.4%, 49.0% and 82.8% greater than CARALL1, CARALL3 and CARALL4 in terms of thermal conductivity. In terms of mechanical properties, it was also CARALL2 that has higher tensile, compressive, flexural and impact strength. Therefore, the study showed that carbon fibre flax reinforced aluminium laminate (CARALL3) which is the hybrid composite with green fibre can compete with fibre-metal laminate composites of pure synthetic fibre in terms of their properties.

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The study presents the use of Enova® IC3100 and hardener/epoxy resin on the metal alloy and a hybrid composite of metal with natural fibre (flax) with the percentage of aerogel, for use in aircraft high-temperature region. The main objective of the study is to determine the percentage amount of Enova® IC3100 and epoxy resin/hardener on the hybrid composite. The composites were fabricated using different percentage of aerogel in an epoxy. The composites undergo a fire test using ISO2685 propane-air burner. The results obtained indicate that a less layered aluminium alloy coated with greener and lighter substance mix with epoxy resin/hardener can be used in a high-temperature aircraft application. The hybrid composite with flax fibre presents 5-10% greater than the other composite in terms of fire resistance. The study shows that the composite of aluminium alloy 2024-T3 coated with silica aerogel possesses good properties that resist high-temperature in an aircraft component.

Raphia palm tree (faminifera) is one of the most economically useful plants in Africa, the leaves are used for shelter and the stem produces palm sap, which is consumed as a beverage. Physical and mechanical properties of raphia palm kernel were studied at three different moisture content levels of 9.69%, 14.69%, and 19.69% using standard methods and instruments. The physical properties studied were minor, intermediate, major and geometric mean diameters, arithmetic means diameter, surface area, sphericity, aspect ratio, angle of repose, bulk density, and coefficient of static friction. While the mechanical properties were maximum force, bioyield force, and deformation. The result of the physical properties of the kernel determined revealed that major diameter ranged between 42.41-43.43 mm, intermediate diameter ranged between 35.88-36.69 mm, minor diameter ranged between 23.81-25.31 mm, geometric mean diameter ranged between 33.09-34.29 mm, sphericity ranged between 7.80-7.93, surface area ranged between 32.01-34.31 cm 2 , true density ranged between 1.17-1.50 g/mm 3 , bulk density ranged between 0.8-1.19 g/ mm 3 , porosity ranged between 31.62-42.18%, angle of repose ranged between 40.24-42.18 o and coefficient of static friction ranged between 2.55-0.44, 0.5-0.14 on plywood and steel respectively. While the mechanical properties ranged between 11.01-30.06 kN for maximum force, 5.6-12 kN for bioyield point and 10.55-12.75 mm for deformation on horizontal loading and 9.44-11.77 kN for maximum force, 4.7-3.8 kN for bioyield point and 8.1-7.70 mm deformation on vertical loading. Consequently, the result will provide data for efficient handling and equipment design to the engineer.