Sexually antagonistic (SA) genetic variation-in which alleles favored in one sex are disfavored in the other-is predicted to be common and has been documented in several animal and plant populations, yet we currently know little about its pervasiveness among species or its population genetic basis. Recent applications of genomics in studies of SA genetic variation have highlighted considerable methodological challenges to the identification and characterization of SA genes, raising questions about the feasibility of genomic approaches for inferring SA selection. The related fields of local adaptation and statistical genomics have previously dealt with similar challenges, and lessons from these disciplines can therefore help overcome current difficulties in applying genomics to study SA genetic variation. Here, we integrate theoretical and analytical concepts from local adaptation and statistical genomics research-including F ST and F IS statistics, genome-wide association studies, pedigree analyses, reciprocal transplant studies, and evolve-and-resequence experiments-to evaluate methods for identifying SA genes and genome-wide signals of SA genetic variation. We begin by developing theoretical models for between-sex F ST and F IS , including explicit null distributions for each statistic, and using them to critically evaluate putative multilocus signals of sex-specific selection in previously published datasets. We then highlight new statistics that address some of the limitations of F ST and F IS , along with applications of more direct approaches for characterizing SA genetic variation, which incorporate explicit fitness measurements. We finish by presenting practical guidelines for the validation and evolutionary analysis of candidate SA genes and discussing promising empirical systems for future work.

Theoretical work suggests that sexual conflict should promote the maintenance of genetic diversity by the opposing directions of selection on males and females. If such conflict is pervasive, it could potentially lead to genomic heterogeneity in levels of genetic diversity an idea that so far has not been empirically tested on a genomewide scale. We used large-scale population genomic and transcriptomic data from the collared flycatcher (Ficedula albicollis) to analyse how sexual conflict, for which we use sex-biased gene expression as a proxy, relates to genetic variability. Here, we demonstrate that the extent of sex-biased gene expression of both male-biased and female-biased genes is significantly correlated with levels of nucleotide diversity in gene sequences and that this correlation extends to diversity levels also in intergenic DNA and introns. We find signatures of balancing selection in sex-biased genes but also note that relaxed purifying selection could potentially explain part of the observed patterns. The finding of significant genetic differentiation between males and females for male-biased (and gonad-specific) genes indicates ongoing sexual conflict and sex-specific viability selection, potentially driven by sexual selection. Our results thus indicate that sexual antagonism could potentially be considered as one viable explanation to the long-standing question in evolutionary biology of how genomes can remain so genetically variable in face of strong natural and sexual selection.

Degeneration of the nonrecombining chromosome is a common feature of sex chromosome evolution, readily evident by the presence of a pair of largely heteromorphic chromosomes, like in eutherian mammals and birds. However, in ratites (order Palaeognathae, including, e.g., ostrich), the Z and W chromosomes are similar in size and largely undifferentiated, despite avian sex chromosome evolution was initiated > 130 Ma. To better understand what may limit sex chromosome evolution, we performed ostrich transcriptome sequencing and studied genes from the nonrecombining region of the W chromosome. Fourteen gametologous gene pairs present on the W chromosome and Z chromosome were identified, with synonymous sequence divergence of 0.027-0.177. The location of these genes on the Z chromosome was consistent with a sequential increase in divergence, starting 110-157 and ending 24-30 Ma. On the basis of the occurrence of Z-linked genes hemizygous in females, we estimate that about one-third of the Z chromosome does not recombine with the W chromosome in female meiosis. Pairwise d(N)/d(S) between gametologs decreased with age, suggesting strong evolutionary constraint in old gametologs. Lineage-specific d(N)/d(S) was consistently higher in W-linked genes, in accordance with the lower efficacy of selection expected in nonrecombining chromosomes. A higher ratio of GC > AT:AT > GC substitutions in W-linked genes supports a role for GC-biased gene conversion in differentially driving base composition on the two sex chromosomes. A male-to-female (M:F) expression ratio of close to one for recombining genes and close to two for Z-linked genes lacking a W copy show that dosage compensation is essentially absent. Some gametologous genes have retained active expression of the W copy in females (giving a M:F ratio of 1 for the gametologous gene pair), whereas for others W expression has become severely reduced resulting in a M:F ratio of close to 2. These observations resemble the patterns of sex chromosome evolution seen in other avian and mammalian lineages, suggesting similar underlying evolutionary processes, although the rate of sex chromosome differentiation has been atypically low. Lack of dosage compensation may be a factor hindering sex chromosome evolution in this lineage.

Recombination arrest is a necessary step for the evolution of distinct sex chromosomes. Structural changes, such as inversions, may represent the mechanistic basis for recombination suppression and comparisons of the structural organization of chromosomes as given by chromosome-level assemblies offer the possibility to infer inversions across species at some detail. In birds, deduction of the process of sex chromosome evolution has been hampered by the lack of a validated chromosome-level assembly from a representative of one of the two basal clades of modern birds, Paleognathae. We therefore developed a high-density genetic linkage map of the ostrich Z chromosome and used this to correct an existing assembly, including correction of a large chimeric superscaffold and the order and orientation of other superscaffolds. We identified the pseudoautosomal region as a 52 Mb segment (≈60% of the Z chromosome) where recombination occurred in both sexes. By comparing the order and location of genes on the ostrich Z chromosome with that of six bird species from the other major clade of birds (Neognathae), and of reptilian outgroup species, 25 Z-linked inversions were inferred in the avian lineages. We defined Z chromosome organization in an early avian ancestor and identified inversions spanning the candidate sex-determining DMRT1 gene in this ancestor, which could potentially have triggered the onset of avian sex chromosome evolution. We conclude that avian sex chromosome evolution has been characterized by a complex process of probably both Z-linked and W-linked inversions (and/or other processes). This study illustrates the need for validated chromosome-level assemblies for inference of genome evolution.

22Sexually antagonistic (SA) genetic variation-in which genotypes favoured in one sex are 23 disfavoured in the other-is predicted to be common and has been documented in several 24 animal and plant populations, yet we currently know little about its pervasiveness among 25 species or its population genetic basis. Recent applications of genomics in studies of SA 26 genetic variation have highlighted considerable methodological challenges to the 27 identification and characterisation of SA genes, raising questions about the feasibility of 28 genomic approaches for inferring SA selection. The related fields of local adaptation and 29 statistical genomics have previously dealt with similar challenges, and lessons from these 30 disciplines can therefore help overcome current difficulties in applying genomics to study SA 31 genetic variation. Here, we integrate theoretical and analytical concepts from local adaptation 32 and statistical genomics research-including FST and FIS statistics, genome-wide association 33 studies (GWAS), pedigree analyses, reciprocal transplant studies, and evolve-and-resequence 34 (E&R) experiments-to evaluate methods for identifying SA genes and genome-wide signals 35 of SA genetic variation. We begin by developing theoretical models for between-sex FST and 36 FIS, including explicit null distributions for each statistic, and using them to critically evaluate 37 putative signals of sex-specific selection in previously published datasets. We then highlight 38 new statistics that address some of the limitations of FST and FIS, along with applications of 39 more direct approaches for characterising SA genetic variation, which incorporate explicit 40 fitness measurements. We finish by presenting practical guidelines for the validation and 41 evolutionary analysis of candidate SA genes and discussing promising empirical systems for 42 future work. 43 44 3 Impact Summary 45 Genome sequences carry a record of the evolutionary and demographic histories of natural 46populations. Research over the last two decades has dramatically improved our ability to 47 detect genomic signals of adaptation by natural selection, including several widely-used 48 methods for identifying genes underlying local adaptation and quantitative trait variation. Yet 49 the application of these methods to identify sexually antagonistic (SA) genes-wherein 50 variants that are adaptive for one sex are maladaptive for the other-remains under-explored, 51 despite the potential importance of SA selection as a mechanism for maintaining genetic 52 variation. Indeed, several lines of evidence suggest that SA genetic variation is common 53 within animal and plant populations, underscoring the need for analytical methods that can 54 reliably identify SA genes and genomic signals of SA genetic variation. Here, we integrate 55 statistics and experimental designs that were originally developed within the fields of local 56 adaptation and statistical genomics and apply them to the context of sex-specific adaptation 57 and SA genetic variati...

The hallmark of sex chromosome evolution is the progressive suppression of recombination which leads to subsequent degeneration of the non-recombining chromosome. In birds, species belonging to the two major clades, Palaeognathae (including tinamous and flightless ratites) and Neognathae (all remaining birds), show distinctive patterns of sex chromosome degeneration. Birds are female heterogametic, in which females have a Z and a W chromosome. In Neognathae, the highly-degenerated W chromosome seems to have followed the expected trajectory of sex chromosome evolution. In contrast, among Palaeognathae, sex chromosomes of ratite birds are largely recombining. The underlying reason for maintenance of recombination between sex chromosomes in ratites is not clear. Degeneration of the W chromosome might have halted or slowed down due to a multitude of reasons ranging from selective processes, such as a less pronounced effect of sexually antagonistic selection, to neutral processes, such as a slower rate of molecular evolution in ratites. The production of genome assemblies and gene expression data for species of Palaeognathae has made it possible, during recent years, to have a closer look at their sex chromosome evolution. Here, we critically evaluate the understanding of the maintenance of recombination in ratites in light of the current data. We conclude by highlighting certain aspects of sex chromosome evolution in ratites that require further research and can potentially increase power for the inference of the unique history of sex chromosome evolution in this lineage of birds.

Hybridization between recently diverged species is an important evolutionary phenomenon resulting in novel gene combinations that become available to selection (

Sex chromosomes have evolved repeatedly across the tree of life and often exhibit extreme size dimorphism due to genetic degeneration of the sex-limited chromosome (e.g. the W chromosome of some birds and Y chromosome of mammals). However, in some lineages, ancient sex-limited chromosomes have escaped degeneration. Here, we study the evolutionary maintenance of sex chromosomes in the ostrich (Struthio camelus), where the W remains 65% the size of the Z chromosome, despite being more than 100 million years old. Using genome-wide resequencing data, we show that the population scaled recombination rate of the pseudoautosomal region (PAR) is higher than similar sized autosomes and is correlated with pedigree-based recombination rate in the heterogametic females, but not homogametic males. Genetic variation within the sex-linked region (SLR) (π = 0.001) was significantly lower than in the PAR, consistent with recombination cessation. Conversely, genetic variation across the PAR (π = 0.0016) was similar to that of autosomes and dependent on local recombination rates, GC content and to a lesser extent, gene density. In particular, the region close to the SLR was as genetically diverse as autosomes, likely due to high recombination rates around the PAR boundary restricting genetic linkage with the SLR to only ~50Kb. The potential for alleles with antagonistic fitness effects in males and females to drive chromosome degeneration is therefore limited. While some regions of the PAR had divergent male-female allele frequencies, suggestive of sexually antagonistic alleles, coalescent simulations showed this was broadly consistent with neutral genetic processes. Our results indicate that the degeneration of the large and ancient sex chromosomes of the ostrich may have been slowed by high recombination in the female PAR, reducing the scope for the accumulation of sexually antagonistic variation to generate selection for recombination cessation.