ResumenEl documento analiza la política fiscal a lo largo del Siglo XX en Colombia, con énfasis en los factores económicos y de economía política que determinaron los aciertos y las dificultades fiscales que experimentó el país. Desde el punto de vista de las estadísticas, se construyen series fiscales consistentes metodológicamente para el gobierno para el período 1899 a 2003. Después de observar niveles promedio de la carga tributaria (impuestos nacionales) del alrededor del 5% del PIB durante el siglo, se presentó un cambio positivo significativo desde mediados de los noventa (la carga alcanzó un nivel del 14% en 2003). Sin embargo, el cambio se logró a través de reformas sucesivas e incompletas que dieron lugar a una estructura tributaria inadecuada e ineficiente. El gasto del gobierno se encuentra hoy en día en el nivel más alto del siglo, con una tendencia creciente desde inicios de los noventa, que se explica principalmente por las transferencias (territoriales, pensionales y otras) y los intereses de la deuda. Se destaca que las reformas presupuestales que han buscado flexibilizar y reducir el gasto no han tenido el éxito esperado. Los desbalances fiscales durante el siglo fueron seguidos de ajustes por el lado de los ingresos y de los gastos, que hicieron posible el cumplimiento de la restricción intertemporal del gobierno, como lo muestra el comportamiento del nivel de la deuda. El desbalance fiscal acumulado del gobierno, reflejado en un nivel de la deuda sin precedentes en el siglo (54% del PIB), demanda reformas estructurales y ajuste fiscal adicional que la hagan sostenible. En general, el gobierno ha tenido más éxito en alcanzar ajustes fiscales por aumentos en los ingresos que a través de recortes en los gastos.
This paper analyses the effects of sterilised, intraday foreign exchange market operations (non-discretionary and discretionary) on foreign exchange returns and volatility in four inflation targeting economies in Latin America. The distribution of exchange rates during intervention and non-intervention days are first compared, and then event study regressions are used to estimate the impact of intervention (and macro surprises) on exchange rate returns and exchange rate volatility as well as on foreign exchange market turnover (in Colombia). In general, the results suggest that the impact of both non-discretionary and discretionary operations is at times significant but transitory. However, an analysis of Chile's experience suggests that the announcement effects of even non-discretionary programmes may be significant and persistent.
Structural VAR and Structural VEC models were estimated for Chile and Colombia, aiming at identifying fiscal policy shocks in both countries between 1990 and 2005. The impulse responses obtained allow the calculation of a pesofor-peso ($/$) effect on output of a shock to public spending and to the government's net tax revenues, providing a good notion of the incidence of fiscal policy shocks in both countries. When public finances are under control, as they are in Chile, fiscal policy seems to be more effective than when they lack stability and credibility, as seems to be the case of Colombia since the mid nineties.
This paper employs network analysis to study world trade from 1995 to 2014. We focus on the main connective features of the world trade network (WTN) and their dynamics. Results suggest that countries' efforts to attain the benefits of trade have resulted in an intertwined network that is increasingly dense, reciprocal, and clustered. Trade linkages are distributed homogeneously among countries, but their intensity (i.e. their value) is highly concentrated in a small set of countries. The main connective features of the WTN were not affected by the 2007-2008 international financial crisis. However, we find that the crisis marks a turning point in the evolution of the WTN from a twogroup (led by the US and Germany) to a three-group (led by the US, Germany, and China) hierarchical structure; gravity models of international trade may explain this evolution. Furthermore, we find that WTN's connective features do not conform to a linear aggregation of sectorial trade networks.
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