Summary In this study we compare the genetic ancestry of individuals from two as yet genetically unstudied cultural traditions in Estonia in the context of available modern and ancient datasets: 15 from the Late Bronze Age stone-cist graves (1200–400 BC) (EstBA), and 6 from the Pre-Roman Iron Age tarand cemeteries (800/500 BC–50 AD) (EstIA). We also included 5 Pre-Roman to Roman Iron Age Ingrian (500 BC–450 AD) (IngIA) and 7 Middle Age Estonian (1200–1600 AD) (EstMA) individuals to build a dataset for studying the demographic history of the northern parts of the Eastern Baltic from the earliest layer of Mesolithic to modern times. Our findings are consistent with EstBA receiving gene flow from regions with strong Western hunter-gatherer (WHG) affinities, and EstIA from populations related to modern Siberians. The latter inference is in accordance with Y chromosome (chrY) distributions in present-day populations of the Eastern Baltic, as well as patterns of autosomal variation in the majority of the westernmost Uralic speakers [1–5]. This ancestry reached the coasts of the Baltic Sea no later than the mid-first millennium BC; i.e. in the same time window as the diversification of west Uralic/Finnic languages [6]. Furthermore, phenotypic traits often associated with modern Northern Europeans like light eyes, hair and skin as well as lactose tolerance can be traced back to the Bronze Age in the Eastern Baltic.

Highlights d Four ancient Treponema pallidum genomes from early modern Europe were reconstructed d The genomes are highly diverse and include syphilis, yaws, and an unknown lineage d The new ancient T. pallidum lineage is a basal sister group to yaws and bejel d Molecular clock dating would allow a pre-Columbian origin of T. pallidum in Europe

Although sheep (Ovis aries) have been one of the most exploited domestic animals in Estonia since the Late Bronze Age, relatively little is known about their genetic history. Here, we explore temporal changes in Estonian sheep populations and their mitochondrial genetic diversity over the last 3000 years. We target a 558 base pair fragment of the mitochondrial hypervariable region in 115 ancient sheep from 71 sites in Estonia (c. 1200 BC–AD 1900s), 19 ancient samples from Latvia, Russia, Poland and Greece (6800 BC–AD 1700), as well as 44 samples of modern Kihnu native sheep breed. Our analyses revealed: (1) 49 mitochondrial haplotypes, associated with sheep haplogroups A and B; (2) high haplotype diversity in Estonian ancient sheep; (3) continuity in mtDNA haplotypes through time; (4) possible population expansion during the first centuries of the Middle Ages (associated with the establishment of the new power regime related to 13th century crusades); (5) significant difference in genetic diversity between ancient populations and modern native sheep, in agreement with the beginning of large-scale breeding in the 19th century and population decline in local sheep. Overall, our results suggest that in spite of the observed fluctuations in ancient sheep populations, and changes in the natural and historical conditions, the utilisation of local sheep has been constant in the territory of Estonia, displaying matrilineal continuity from the Middle Bronze Age through the Modern Period, and into modern native sheep.

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This paper reports a case study of 43 fetuses and perinates from four mass graves and two double burials from the cemetery of St. Jacob in Tartu (SE Estonia). The burials were dated to the 13th–15th centuries AD and located outside the cemetery walls, and likely can be linked to historically recorded episodes of famine and epidemic in medieval Livonia. All individuals belonged to the fetal and perinatal age categories, meaning they were either aborted or died around the time of birth. Ten perinates of these 43 individuals displayed skeletal evidence for systemic metabolic disease. The results of the bioarchaeological investigation provide insights into the effects upheavals of the time had on the weakest members of the society, especially the vulnerability of pregnant and lactating mothers to undernutrition and infections, and shed light on how the prematurely deceased were treated in this urban community. This may potentially explain the burial location. This work is the first detailed paleopathological study of non‐adults in medieval Estonia and the Baltic region, opening the way for further research on similar material in this geographical area.

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UNDERSTANDING RELIGIOUS CHANGE between the collapse of the Roman Empire and the