By positive expectations we mean to refer to those expectations whose fulfillment by another leads to or reinforces positive rather than negative feelings, and whose nonfulfillment leads to the opposite, to alienation rather than solidarity; conformity to negative expectations, on the other hand, leads to or reinforces negative rather than positive feelings.'The term another is being used inclusively to refer

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The hypothesis was tested that the relative favorableness of ingroup evaluations increases directly with the distinctiveness of ingroup membership (i.e., as the ingroup's relative size decreases). Ingroups of various sizes were experimentally created. Subjects then wrote a short essay and evaluated essays (ostensibly) written by two other subjects, one of whom "happened" to be an ingroup member, the other, an outgroup member. The hypothesis was supported: The smaller the ingroup, the more favorable were evaluations of the ingroup writer relative to the outgroup writer.

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The Social Science Statement supporting the 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education U.S. Supreme Court Decision was based on well-meaning rhetoric rather than solid research. Social science thinking 10 years later, when desegregation began to be implemented, was more sophisticated but still unsupported by necessary research. We desperately need research and development as well as systems engineering in the social sciences if we are eventually going to tackle and solve some of our social problems, including the successful implementation of school desegregation.

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