Creep deformation is simulated for 9 pct Cr steels by using the Norton equation with the addition of back stresses from dislocations and precipitates. The composite model is used to represent the heterogeneous dislocation structure found in 9 to 12 pct Cr steels. Dislocation evolution is modeled by taking capturing and annihilation of free dislocations into account. Recovery of immobile dislocations is derived from the ability of dislocation climb. In spite of the fact that the initial dislocation density is high and is reduced during creep, primary creep is successfully modeled for a P92 steel. Subgrain growth is evaluated using a model by Sandstro¨m (1977). The long time subgrain size corresponds well to a frequently used empirical relation, with subgrain size inversely proportional to the applied stress.
The influence of a distribution of particles on creep strength is analyzed. The time it takes for dislocations to climb across the particles is the basis for a model that can describe the effect of particle size distribution, particle area fraction, stress, and temperature on the creep rate. The degradation of microstructure through coarsening is taken into account. The particle size distributions for M 23 C 6 carbides and MX carbonitrides in a 9 pct Cr steel are accurately represented by an exponential function. Coarsening coefficients and phase fractions for MX and M 23 C 6 particles are predicted using thermodynamic modeling, and show good fit to experimental data. The size distributions are used to determine the amount of dislocations, which can either climb across particles or make Orowan loops. The dislocation climb model is integrated into a creep rate prediction model and is used to reproduce experimental creep data for P92 steel.
Two industrially processed low-alloyed martensitic tool steel alloys with compositions Fe-0.3C-1.1Si-0.81Mn-1.5Cr-1.4Ni-1.1Mo-0.13V and Fe-0.3C-1.1Si-0.81Mn-1.4Cr-0.7Ni-0.8Mo-0.14V (wt.%) were characterized using small-angle neutron scattering (SANS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), and atom probe tomography (APT). The combination of methods enables an understanding of the complex precipitation sequences that occur in these materials during the processing. Nb-rich primary carbides form at hot working, while Fe-rich auto-tempering carbides precipitate upon quenching, and cementite carbides grow during tempering when Mo-rich secondary carbides also nucleate and grow. The number density of Mo-rich carbides increases with tempering time, and after 24 h, it is two to three orders of magnitude higher than the Fe-rich carbides. A high number density of Mo-rich carbides is important to strengthen these low-alloyed tool steels through precipitation hardening. The results indicate that the Mo-rich secondary carbide precipitates are initially of MC character, whilst later they start to appear as M2C. This change of the secondary carbides is diffusion driven and is therefore mainly seen for longer tempering times at the higher tempering temperature of 600 °C.
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