Objectives The effects of socially evaluated tasks on stress‐related behavior and physiology are often studied under artificial experimental conditions, such as contrived public speaking. Less is known about these behavioral and physiological dimensions under more routine conditions, such as family interactions. Here, we tested whether language anxiety during bilingual family conversations correlated to cortisol reactivity and speech patterns and whether family members' ages moderated this effect. Methods Individuals (N = 34) from Spanish‐English bilingual families participated in prompted conversations in both languages with their family members and provided saliva that we assayed for cortisol. Participants responded to a survey about language anxiety, and we analyzed their conversations for code switching. We tested whether higher reported anxiety was correlated with increased cortisol reactivity and if participants' age moderated this effect. Results Participants' reported language anxiety was not significantly correlated with cortisol reactivity after conversations in either language. However, age significantly moderated the effect of English language anxiety. Among younger individuals, higher English language anxiety was correlated with greater cortisol reactivity after the English conversations. Older individuals did not demonstrate this same pattern. Individuals who code‐switched during the English conversations had higher English language anxiety than individuals who did not. Similar patterns were not observed for the Spanish conversations. Conclusions The physiological and verbal responses to English language anxiety may be reflective of the high pressure placed on English use among bilingual families in the U.S., and the greater cortisol reactivity of younger individuals suggests they may face more identity challenging acculturation pressure.
Indigenous people, who are often economically, socially, and culturally dependent on forests, represent important stakeholders in forest management. Due to high costs, indigenous communities partner with external institutions to harvest timber, often resulting in forest degradation within their territories, internal and external conflicts, and disinterest in starting new timber management projects. Using a standardized methodology to investigate the outcomes of previous community forestry projects presents an opportunity to better understand and potentially resolve these issues. Hence, we conducted research in the Sinchi Roca I native community in Peru. Our objectives were (1) to describe the process of timber harvest, (2) to analyze gender differences in local perceptions of timber management, and (3) to evaluate the outcomes of the timber activity, applying socioeconomic criteria and indicators. Data collection included in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and intra-household surveys. We found that locals partnered with a company for timber harvesting, which led to a sanction from the Peruvian government. Timber harvesting was therefore negatively perceived in the community, with 83.75% of survey respondents dissatisfied with the activity and 88.75% reporting internal and external conflicts due to the presence of the company. Moreover, women did not have a major role in timber harvesting, nor did they actively participate in planning meetings. Results suggest that improving future timber management projects in indigenous communities requires that projects be adapted to local realities and encourage local participation, including training for locals in governance, administration of documents, and negotiations with external stakeholders.
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