BackgroundCost-of-illness (COI) studies of Multiple Sclerosis (MS) are vital components for describing the economic burden of MS, and are frequently used in model studies of interventions of MS. We conducted a systematic review of studies estimating the COI of MS, to compare costs between studies and examine cost drivers, emphasizing generalizability and methodological choices.Material and methodA literature search on studies published in English on COI of MS was performed in PubMed for the period January 1969 to January 2014, resulting in 1,326 publications. A mapping of studies using a bottom-up approach or top-down approach, respectively, was conducted for the 48 studies assessed as relevant. In a second analysis, the cost estimates were compared between the 29 studies that used a societal perspective on costs, human capital approach for indirect costs, presenting number of patients included, time-period studied, and year of price level used.ResultsThe mapping showed that bottom-up studies and prevalence approaches were most common. The cost ratios between different severity levels within studies were relatively stable, to the ratio of 1 to 2 to 3 for disability level categories. Drugs were the main cost drivers for MS-patients with low disease severity, representing 29% to 82% of all costs in this patient group, while the main cost components for groups with more advanced MS symptoms were production losses due to MS and informal care, together representing 17% to 67% of costs in those groups.ConclusionThe bottom-up method and prevalence approach dominated in studies of COI of MS. Our findings show that there are difficulties in comparing absolute costs across studies, nevertheless, the relative costs expressed as cost ratios, comparing different severity levels, showed higher resemblance. Costs of drugs were main cost drivers for less severe MS and informal care and production losses for the most severe MS.

PurposePotentially inappropriate prescriptions (PIPs) criteria are widely used for evaluating the quality of prescribing in elderly. However, there is limited evidence on their association with adverse drug reactions (ADRs) across healthcare settings. The study aimed to determine the prevalence of PIPs, defined by the Screening Tool of Older Persons’ potentially inappropriate Prescriptions (STOPP) criteria, in the Swedish elderly general population and to investigate the association between PIPs and occurrence of ADRs.MethodPersons ≥65 years old were identified from a random sample of 5025 adults drawn from the Swedish Total Population Register. A retrospective cohort study was conducted among 813 elderly with healthcare encounters in primary and specialised healthcare settings during a 3-month period in 2008. PIPs were identified from the Swedish Prescribed Drug Register, medical records and health administrative data. ADRs were independently identified by expert reviewers in a stepwise manner using the Howard criteria. Multivariable logistic regression examined the association between PIPs and ADRs.ResultsOverall, 374 (46.0 %) persons had ≥1 PIPs and 159 (19.5 %) experienced ≥1 ADRs during the study period. In total, 29.8 % of all ADRs was considered caused by PIPs. Persons prescribed with PIPs had more than twofold increased odds of experiencing ADRs (OR 2.47; 95 % CI 1.65–3.69). PIPs were considered the cause of 60 % of ADRs affecting the vascular system, 50 % of ADRs affecting the nervous system and 62.5 % of ADRs resulting in falls.ConclusionPIPs are common among the Swedish elderly and are associated with increased odds of experiencing ADRs. Thus, interventions to decrease PIPs may contribute to preventing ADRs, in particular ADRs associated with nervous and vascular disorders and falls.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00228-015-1950-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

BackgroundThe aim was to estimate the direct costs caused by ADEs, including costs for dispensed drugs, primary care, other outpatient care, and inpatient care, and to relate the direct costs caused by ADEs to the societal COI (direct and indirect costs), for patients with ADEs and for the entire study population.MethodsWe conducted a population-based observational retrospective cohort study of ADEs identified from medical records. From a random sample of 5025 adults in a Swedish county council, 4970 were included in the analyses. During a three-month study period in 2008, direct and indirect costs were estimated from resource use identified in the medical records and from register data on costs for resource use.ResultsAmong 596 patients with ADEs, the average direct costs per patient caused by ADEs were USD 444.9 [95% CI: 264.4 to 625.3], corresponding to USD 21 million per 100 000 adult inhabitants per year. Inpatient care accounted for 53.9% of all direct costs caused by ADEs. For patients with ADEs, the average societal cost of illness was USD 6235.0 [5442.8 to 7027.2], of which direct costs were USD 2830.1 [2260.7 to 3399.4] (45%), and indirect costs USD 3404.9 [2899.3 to 3910.4] (55%). The societal cost of illness was higher for patients with ADEs compared to other patients. ADEs caused 9.5% of all direct healthcare costs in the study population.ConclusionsHealthcare costs for patients with ADEs are substantial across different settings; in primary care, other outpatient care and inpatient care. Hence the economic impact of ADEs will be underestimated in studies focusing on inpatient ADEs alone. Moreover, the high proportion of indirect costs in the societal COI for patients with ADEs suggests that the observed costs caused by ADEs would be even higher if including indirect costs. Additional studies are needed to identify interventions to prevent and manage ADEs.

AimsTo estimate the 3 month prevalence of adverse drug events (ADEs), categories of ADEs and preventable ADEs, and the preventability of ADEs among adults in Sweden. Further, to identify drug classes and organ systems associated with ADEs and estimate their seriousness.MethodsA random sample of 5025 adults in a Swedish county council in 2008 was drawn from the Total Population Register. All their medical records in 29 inpatient care departments in three hospitals, 110 specialized outpatient clinics and 51 primary care units were reviewed retrospectively in a stepwise manner, and complemented with register data on dispensed drugs. ADEs, including adverse drug reactions (ADRs), sub-therapeutic effects of drug therapy (STEs), drug dependence and abuse, drug intoxications from overdose, and morbidities due to drug-related untreated indication, were detected during a 3 month study period, and assessed for preventability.ResultsAmong 4970 included individuals, the prevalence of ADEs was 12.0% (95% confidence interval (CI) 11.1, 12.9%), and preventable ADEs 5.6% (95% CI 5.0, 6.2%). ADRs (6.9%; 95% CI 6.2, 7.6%) and STEs (6.4%; 95% CI 5.8, 7.1%) were more prevalent than the other ADEs. Of the ADEs, 38.8% (95% CI 35.8–41.9%) was preventable, varying by ADE category and seriousness. ADEs were frequently associated with nervous system and cardiovascular drugs, but the associated drugs and affected organs varied by ADE category.ConclusionsThe considerable burden of ADEs and preventable ADEs from commonly used drugs across care settings warrants large-scale efforts to redesign safer, higher quality healthcare systems. The heterogeneous nature of the ADE categories should be considered in research and clinical practice for preventing, detecting and mitigating ADEs.

BackgroundMultiple sclerosis (MS) patients earn lower incomes and receive higher benefits. However, there is limited knowledge of how this is correlated with their disability.ObjectiveTo elucidate sources and levels of income among MS patients with different disability, assessed with the Expanded Disability Status Scale.MethodsA total of 7929 MS patients aged 21–64 years and living in Sweden in 2010 were identified for this cross-sectional study. Descriptive statistics, logistic and truncated linear regression models were used to estimate differences between MS patients regarding earnings, disability pension, sickness absence, disability allowance, unemployment compensation, and social assistance.ResultsThe average level of earnings was ten times lower and the average level of health- related benefits was four times higher when comparing MS patients with severe and mild disability. MS patients with severe disability had on average SEK 166,931 less annual income from earnings and SEK 54,534 more income from benefits compared to those with mild disability. The combined average income for MS patients was 35% lower when comparing patients in the same groups. The adjusted risk ratio for having earnings among MS patients with severe disability compared to the patients with mild disability was 0.33 (95% CI 0.29–0.39), while the risk ratio for having benefits was 1.93 (95% CI 1.90–1.94).ConclusionsDisease progression affects the financial situation of MS patients considerably. Correlations between higher disability and patient income were observed, suggesting that earnings and benefits could be used as measures of MS progression and proxies of disability.

Swedish registry, Researchweb.org, ID NR 65 791.

BackgroundAlthough a majority of patients with hypertension require a multidrug therapy, this is rarely considered when measuring adherence from refill data. Moreover, investigating the association between refill non-adherence to antihypertensive therapy (AHT) and elevated blood pressure (BP) has been advocated.ObjectiveIdentify factors associated with non-adherence to AHT, considering the multidrug therapy, and investigate the association between non-adherence to AHT and elevated BP.MethodsA retrospective cohort study including patients with hypertension, identified from a random sample of 5025 Swedish adults. Two measures of adherence were estimated by the proportion of days covered method (PDC≥80%): (1) Adherence to any antihypertensive medication and, (2) adherence to the full AHT regimen. Multiple logistic regressions were performed to investigate the association between sociodemographic factors (age, sex, education, income), clinical factors (user profile, number of antihypertensive medications, healthcare use, cardiovascular comorbidities) and non-adherence. Moreover, the association between non-adherence (long-term and a month prior to BP measurement) and elevated BP was investigated.ResultsNon-adherence to any antihypertensive medication was higher among persons < 65 years (Odds Ratio, OR 2.75 [95% CI, 1.18–6.43]) and with the lowest income (OR 2.05 [95% CI, 1.01–4.16]). Non-adherence to the full AHT regimen was higher among new users (OR 2.04 [95% CI, 1.32–3.15]), persons using specialized healthcare (OR 1.63, [95% CI, 1.14–2.32]), and having multiple antihypertensive medications (OR 1.85 [95% CI, 1.25–2.75] and OR 5.22 [95% CI, 3.48–7.83], for 2 and ≥3 antihypertensive medications, respectively). Non-adherence to any antihypertensive medication a month prior to healthcare visit was associated with elevated BP.ConclusionSociodemographic factors were associated with non-adherence to any antihypertensive medication while clinical factors with non-adherence to the full AHT regimen. These differing findings support considering the use of multiple antihypertensive medications when measuring refill adherence. Monitoring patients' refill adherence prior to healthcare visit may facilitate interpreting elevated BP.

ObjectivesWe compared work disability of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) from 5 years before with 5 years after diagnosis, with that of matched controls, and analysed whether progression in work disability among patients with MS was associated with sociodemography.DesignPopulation-based cohort study.SettingThe adult Swedish general population.ParticipantsResidents aged 24–57 diagnosed with MS (n=3685) in 2003–2006 and 18 425 matched controls without MS.Primary and secondary outcome measuresAnnual net days of sickness absence (SA) and disability pension (DP), used as a proxy for work disability, followed from 5 years before to 5 years after diagnosis (ie, T−5–T+5). For patients with MS, regression was used to identify sociodemographic factors related to progression in work disability.ResultsWork disability of patients with MS increased gradually between T−5 and T−1 (mean: 46–82 days) followed by a sharp increase (T+1, 142 days), after which only a marginal increase was observed (T+5, 149 days). The matched controls had less work disability, slightly increasing during the period to a maximum of ∼40 days. Men with MS had a sharper increase in work disability before diagnosis. High educational level was associated with less progression in work disability before and around diagnosis.ConclusionsPatients with MS had more work disability days also 5 years before diagnosis. Several sociodemographic variables were associated with the absolute level and the progression in SA and DP.