A reciprocal relationship exists between persistent pain and negative affective states such as fear, anxiety, and depression. Accumulating evidence points to the amygdala as an important site of such interaction. Whereas a key role of the amygdala in the neuronal mechanisms of emotionality and affective disorders has been well established, the concept of the amygdala as an important contributor to pain and its emotional component is still emerging. This article will review and discuss evidence from anatomical, neuroimaging, behavioral, electrophysiological, pharmacological, and biochemical data that implicate the amygdala in pain modulation and emotional responses to pain. The latero-capsular division of the central nucleus of the amygdala is now defined as the "nociceptive amygdala" and integrates nociceptive information with poly-modal information about the internal and external bodily environment. Dependent on environmental conditions and affective states, the amygdala appears to play a dual facilitatory and inhibitory role in the modulation of pain behavior and nociceptive processing at different levels of the pain neuraxis. Only recently, electrophysiological, pharmacological, and biochemical neuroplastic changes were shown in the nociceptive amygdala in persistent pain. It is conceivable, however, that amygdala plasticity plays an important role in emotional pain behavior and its modulation by affective state.

Using cotyledon explants excised from seedlings germinated in vitro, an efficient plant regeneration system via organogenesis was established for bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria Standl.). Maximum shoot regeneration was obtained when the proximal parts of cotyledons from 4-day-old seedlings were cultured on MS medium with 3 mg/l BA and 0.5 mg/l AgNO(3) under a 16-h photoperiod. After 3-4 weeks of culture, 21.9-80.7% of explants from the five cultivars regenerated shoots. Adventitious shoots were successfully rooted on a half-strength MS medium with 0.1 mg/l IAA for 2-3 weeks. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that most of the regenerated plants derived from culture on medium with AgNO(3) were diploid.

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We conducted an open-labeled, prospective study to determine the efficacy and safety of tacrolimus as an alternative therapeutic option for those patients with refractory lupus nephritis. The study population comprised one male and eight female patients with diffuse proliferative lupus nephritis. All patients had failed to respond to sufficient intravenous cyclophosphamide therapy with proteinuria of >or=1 g/day and active urinary sediments. Tacrolimus (0.1 mg/kg/day) was administered for 1 year with adjusting drug level (4-10 microg/l). The mean serum creatinine level and spot urine protein creatinine ratio (UPCR) at baseline were 1.39 mg/dl and 2.27, respectively. After the treatment, proteinuria reduced significantly from median UPCR value of 2.19 (range, 1.19-3.34) to 0.44 (range, 0.12-2.13) (p < 0.05). Seven (78%) of the nine patients showed a complete clinical response, which was defined as stabilization in the disease-activity markers and serum creatinine level with reduction of >or=50% in UPCR; two patients showed complete remission with UPCR <0.2. One patient showed treatment failure because of the disease progression. No serious adverse effects were observed during the study. This study demonstrates that tacrolimus can show a significant therapeutic response in cases that are refractory to the standard regimen for diffuse proliferative lupus nephritis.