Objective: Problematic smartphone use (PSU) is the development of pathological dependence at the expense of performing activities of daily living, thus having a negative health and psychosocial impact on the users. Previous PSU studies focused on medical students and little is known regarding its effect on students undergoing other fields of study. The objective of this study is to identify the pattern of smartphone usage and determine the psychosocial factors affecting PSU among undergraduate students in Malaysia and compare the pattern among different fields of study. Method: A prospective cross-sectional study was conducted using validated Smartphone Addiction Scale −Malay version (SAS −M) questionnaire. One−way ANOVA was used to determine the correlation between the patterns of smartphone usage among the students categorised by their ethnic groups, hand dominance and by their field of study. MLR analysis was applied to predict PSU based on socio−demographic data, smartphone usage patterns, psychosocial factors and field of study. Results: A total of 1060 students completed the questionnaire. The majority of students had PSU (60.7%). Students used smartphones predominantly to access SNAs, namely Instagram. Longer duration on the smartphone per day (>9 hours), age at first using a smartphone and depression carried higher risk of developing PSU, whereas the field of study (science vs. arts based) did not contribute to an increased risk of developing PSU.Conclusion: Findings from this study can help better inform university administrators about atrisk groups of undergraduate students who may benefit from targeted intervention designed to re−duce their addictive behavior patterns. Keywords: Smartphone Addiction Scale, education, social networking, Malaysia
Background: Problematic Instagram use (PIGU), a specific type of internet addiction, is prevalent among adolescents and young adults. In certain instances, Instagram acts as a platform for exhibiting photos of risk-taking behavior that the subjects with PIGU upload to gain likes as a surrogate for gaining peer acceptance and popularity. Aims: The primary objective was to evaluate whether addiction-specific cues compared with neutral cues, i.e., negative emotional valence cues vs. positive emotional valence cues, would elicit activation of the dopaminergic reward network (i.e., precuneus, nucleus accumbens, and amygdala) and consecutive deactivation of the executive control network [i.e., medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC)], in the PIGU subjects. Method: An fMRI cue-induced reactivity study was performed using negative emotional valence, positive emotional valence, and truly neutral cues, using Instagram themes. Thirty subjects were divided into PIGU and healthy control (HC) groups, based on a set of diagnostic criteria using behavioral tests, including the Modified Instagram Addiction Test (IGAT), to assess the severity of PIGU. In-scanner recordings of the subjects' responses to the images and regional activity of the neural addiction pathways were recorded. Results: Negative emotional valence > positive emotional valence cues elicited increased activations in the precuneus in the PIGU group. A negative and moderate correlation was observed between PSC at the right mPFC with the IGAT scores of the PIGU subjects when corrected for multiple comparisons [r = −0.777, (p < 0.004, two-tailed)].
The characteristics of smartphone addiction (SPA) can be evaluated by neuroimaging studies. Information on the brain structural alterations, and effects on psychosocial wellbeing, however, have not been concurrently evaluated. The aim of this study was to identify abnormalities in gray matter volume using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and neuronal functional alterations using resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) in emerging adults with SPA. We correlated the neuroimaging parameters with indices for psychosocial wellbeing such as depression, anxiety, stress, and impulsivity. Forty participants (20 SPA and 20 age-matched healthy controls) were assessed using VBM and rs-fMRI. The smartphone addiction scale – Malay version (SAS-M) questionnaire scores were used to categorize the SPA and healthy control groups. DASS-21 and BIS-11 questionnaires were used to assess for psychosocial wellbeing and impulsivity, respectively. VBM identified the SPA group to have reduced gray matter volume in the insula and precentral gyrus; and increased grey matter volume in the precuneus relative to controls. Moderate correlation was observed between the precuneus volume and the SAS-M scores. Individuals with SPA showed significant rs-fMRI activations in the precuneus, and posterior cingulate cortex (FWE uncorrected, p<0.001). The severity of SPA was correlated with depression. Anxiety score was moderately correlated with reduced GMV at the precentral gyrus. Collectively, these results can be used to postulate that the structural and neuronal functional changes in the insula are linked to the neurobiology of SPA that shares similarities with other behavioural addictions.
Problematic Instagram Use (PIGU) is a specific−Internet−addiction disorder observed among the youth of today. fMRI, is able to objectively assess regional brain activation in response to addiction−specific rewards, e.g. viewing picture flashcards. Pictures uploaded onto Instagram by PIGUs have often been associated with risky behaviours in their efforts to gain more ′Likes′, thus it is hypothesized that PIGUs are more drawn to ′Negative−Emotional′ cues. To date, there is no local database with addiction−specific cues. Objective: To conduct an out−of−scanner validation study to create a database of pictures using ′Negative−Emotional′ cues that evoke responses of arousal among PIGUs. Method: Forty−four Malaysian undergraduate students (20 PIGUs, 24 controls) were randomly recruited based on the evaluation using the Smartphone−Addiction−Scale−Malay version (SAS−M) and modified Instagram Addiction Test (IGAT); and fulfilled Lin et al. (2016) definition of addiction. They were administered 200 content-specific pictures that were multidimensional i.e. arousal (excitation/relaxation effects), approach−avoidance (motivational direction) and emotional valence (positive/negative feelings) to describe the PIGUs perception of the psychological properties of the pictures using a 9−point Likert scale. Results: PIGUs viewing ′Negative−Emotional′ cues demonstrated significant positive correlations between arousal & valence (z = 4.834, p < .001, effect size = 0.69) and arousal & avoidance−approach (z = 4.625, p < .001, effect size= 0.66) as compared to controls and were more frequently aroused by ′Negative−Emotional′ type of stimuli. Conclusion: A database of validated, addiction−specific pictures can be developed to potentiate any future cue−induced response to reward fMRI studies to assess PIGU. Keywords: Addiction, Affective ratings, Cravings, Picture database, Reward
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