Several studies have indicated the influence of a maternal low protein diet on the fetus. However, the effect of a maternal low quality protein diet on fetal growth and development is largely unknown. Wistar rats (11 weeks old) were mated and maintained on either a chow diet with 20% casein (n = 6) as the control group (C), or a low quality protein diet with 20% wheat gluten (n = 7) as the experimental group (WG) through gestation and lactation. Maternal body weights were similar in both groups throughout the study. Birth weights were not influenced by maternal diet and offspring body weights during lactation were similar between the groups. Offspring’s plasma amino acid profiles showed that plasma methionine, glutamine and lysine were significantly lower and aspartic acid, ornithine and glycine-proline were significantly higher in the WG. Plant based protein comprises an important part of protein intake in developing countries. It is well-known that these diets can be inadequate in terms of essential amino acids. The current study shows differential effects of a maternal low quality protein diet on the offspring’s plasma amino acids. Future studies will examine further aspects of the influence of maternal low quality protein diets on fetal growth and development.

Aim: The aims of this study were to adapt a traditional recipe into a healthier form by adding 3 g of oat β-glucan, substituting milk chocolate to dark chocolate with 70% cocoa, and to examine the effect of these alterations on short-term satiety and energy intake. Materials and Methods: Study subjects (n = 25) were tested in a randomized, crossover design with four products closely matched for energy content. Four different versions of a traditional recipe including milk chocolate-control (CON), oat β-glucan (B-GLU), dark chocolate (DARK) or oat β-glucan and dark chocolate (B-GLU + DARK) were given to subjects on different test days. After subjects were asked to report visual analog scale (VAS) scores on sensory outcomes and related satiety for four hours ad libitum, lunch was served and energy intake of individuals was measured. Results: VAS scores indicated that none of the test foods exerted an improved effect on satiety feelings. However, energy intake of individuals during ad libitum lunch was significantly lower in dark chocolate groups (CON: 849.46 ± 47.45 kcal versus DARK: 677.69 ± 48.45 kcal and B-GLU + DARK: 691.08 ± 47.45 kcal, p = 0.014). Conclusion: The study demonstrated that substituting dark chocolate for milk chocolate is more effective in inducing satiety during subsequent food intake in healthy subjects.

Nutrition during pregnancy and lactation is a critical factor in the development of the offspring. Both protein content and source in maternal diet affect neonatal health, but the long-term effects of maternal low-quality protein diet on the offspring are less clear. This study aimed to examine the effects of maternal low-quality protein diet on offspring's growth, development, circulating metabolites and hepatic expression of methyltransferases. Virgin Wistar rats were mated at 11 weeks of age. Dams were then maintained on either a chow diet with 20% casein as the control group (C), or a low-quality protein diet with 20% wheat gluten as the experimental group (WG) throughout gestation and lactation. After weaning, all offspring were fed a control chow diet until the age of 20 weeks. Male WG offspring had significantly lower body weight and energy intake, whereas female WG offspring had significantly higher body weight and energy intake when compared with controls. Early life exposure to WG diet had no significant effect on circulating metabolites. However, fasting insulin concentrations and homoeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance were decreased in WG male and female offspring. Maternal low-quality protein diet increased plasma aspartic acid, glutamic acid, histidine, cystathione and decreased lysine in male WG offspring. Conversely, the same amino acids were reduced in female WG offspring. Adult offspring exposed to WG diet had significantly upregulated hepatic DNMT3a and DNMT3b expressions. Our study showed that there were differential effects of maternal poor-quality protein diet upon adult offspring's metabolism.

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Pregnant women in deprived populations in Scotland have a poor micronutrient status in addition to a very high intake of saturated fat, refined carbohydrates and salt (1) . To investigate the cumulative effects of over-provision of energy substrates, combined with multiple micronutrient deficiencies, we have developed a rodent diet which models the pattern of nutrient intake of those women. One consequence of this diet may be changes in the supply of amino acids to the fetus.A rodent diet (SIMD) was formulated with a macronutrient composition based on the median intakes of pregnant women in the tenth decile of the Scottish index of multiple deprivation (1) . The micronutrient composition of this diet was adjusted using the principle of energy balance. A second diet (SACN) was formulated to incorporate the recommendations of the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition, i.e. low in saturated fat and sugar with reduced salt and with the micronutrients adjusted to meet the recommended intakes. The experimental diets (SIMD and SACN) contained 16·4 % protein by weight; 40 % of the total protein as wheat gluten and 60 % as casein to reflect the human diet. Two groups of nine nulliparous Hooded Lister rats were maintained on either SIMD or SACN diet with a third group fed the widely used AIN-93 G rodent diet as a reference (20 % protein by weight and 100 % of the total protein as casein). After a 3-week adaptation period, animals were mated and maintained on the same diets until they were killed on day 21 of gestation. A mixture of 13 C labelled amino acids was added to samples of maternal and fetal plasma as an internal standard. Amino acids were isolated using ion-exchange chromatography, derivatised with N-tert-Butyldimethylsilyl-N-methyltrifluoroacetamide (MTBSTFA) and the concentrations determined by GC-MS using isotope dilution.Maternal plasma amino acid concentrations were very similar in the SIMD and SACN diet groups. Relative to the AIN-93 G reference group, the maternal plasma of the SIMD and SACN groups had lower (p < 0·05 to 0·001) concentrations of arginine (average 17 %↓), cysteine (35 %↓), histidine (22 %↓), lysine (33 %↓), valine (30 %↓) and threonine (60 %↓).The fetal amino acid profile reflected that of the dam (R 2 > 0·94). Glutamate + glutamine values were increased by 20 % in the SIMD compared with both SACN and AIN-93 G groups (p = 0·029). Relative to the AIN-93 G reference group, the fetal plasma of the SIMD and SACN groups had lower (p < 0·05 to 0·001) concentrations of cysteine (average 23 %↓), lysine (19 %↓), glycine (15 %↓) and threonine (55 %↓), and higher (p < 0·05) concentrations of methionine (14 %↑) and phenylalanine (33 %↑).In conclusion, a pattern of proteins similar to that found in human diets has modified glutamate+glutamine content in the SIMD fetal plasma. Changes in glutamate and glutamine cycling may influence the growth and development of fetal cells (2) . Differences in the concentrations of a number of key amino acids, particularly threonine may be due to the quantity and qu...

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The liver plays an important role in modulating lipid metabolism. Surplus dietary carbohydrates can be converted into fat by de novo lipogenesis (DNL). Alternatively, excess lipid can be oxidised for energy. Pregnant women in deprived populations in Scotland consume diets high in saturated fat and refined carbohydrates (1). We have used an animal model to examine how the maternal liver adapts to this imbalance in pregnancy by measuring the expression of genes regulating the synthesis and oxidation of fatty acids. An experimental diet, formulated to reflect the median intakes of pregnant women in tenth decile of the Scottish index of multiple deprivation (SIMD) (1) was compared with a second experimental diet, formulated to meet the recommendations of the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN), i.e. low in saturated fat and sugar and with micronutrients adjusted to meet the recommended intakes. Three groups of Hooded-Lister strain female rats were fed either the SIMD, SACN or AIN-93 G (reference) diets for an adaptation period of 3 weeks and then after being mated with normal males, continued to be fed the experimental diets until they were killed on day 21 of gestation. Samples of the maternal liver were recovered, and the relative abundance of mRNA species (n = 6 per group) was measured by quantitative RT-PCR as described previously (2). Data was analysed by one-way ANOVA followed by Fisher's multiple comparison test. The abundance of the mRNAs coding for acetyl CoA carboxylase (Acc-1) and fatty acid synthase (FAS) was unchanged in the liver of animals fed the SIMD diet compared with animals fed the SACN or AIN diets. These enzymes are key stages in DNL from carbohydrate, suggesting that the additional free sugar in the diet did not increase the synthesis of fatty acids. There was a twofold increase (P = 0.009) in the mRNA for liver-type carnitine palmitoyl transferase (L-CPT) only in the SIMD group. This protein transfers fatty acids to the mitochondria, suggesting that there is an increase in beta-oxidation in response to additional saturated fat in the diet. We also examined the mRNAs coding for transcriptional regulators. There was a 1.8 fold increase in the mRNAs for the alpha and gamma isoforms of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR-α, P = 0.011 and PPAR-γ P = 0.002) in the SIMD group when compared with SACN and AIN. In contrast the relative abundance of the mRNA for the sterol response element binding protein (SREBP-1c) was similar in all three groups. This pattern is unique and different from other diet models such as methyl deficiency (2) or low protein and indicates complex interactions between nutrition and gene expression in the maternal liver. Changes in hepatic metabolism have an important role in protecting the developing fetus from imbalances in the maternal diet.