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Empirical research has provided mixed evidence regarding the question of whether higher social class promotes prosocial behavior. Recently, Côté et al. [ 1 ] hypothesized that these conflicting evidences might result from a hitherto neglected interaction between the individual’s level of income and the degree of inequality in one’s society. They argue that societies with a higher level of inequality foster a sense of entitlement in high-income individuals, which in turn leads them to be less generous. We put this reasoning to a large-scale test using observational data from the European Social Survey (ESS) and push the scope of our investigation towards a broader conception of social class, using next to income two additional measures of class. First, we examine whether high-class individuals in societies with high levels of inequality do in fact feel more entitled than their counterparts in more equal societies. While we find that an individual’s class and the disposition towards entitlement are strongly correlated, our results show a negative interaction with inequality, i.e. the effect of class on the personal sense of entitlement is weaker in societies with high levels of inequality. Second, we test whether the effect of class on prosocial behavior is moderated by economic inequality with respect to two real-life acts of prosocial behavior, namely engaging in volunteer work and donating money to a humanitarian organization. Our results indicate a substantial positive effect of class on prosocial behavior throughout, as well as a moderate, yet positive, interaction effect of class and inequality.

Zusammenfassung: Der vorliegende Beitrag geht der Frage nach, wie das Ausmaß von Schwarzarbeit in Deutschland imRahmen von Befragungen der allgemeinen Bevçlkerung mçglichst valide geschätzt werden kann. In einem experimentellen Design wird die konventionelle direkte Befragungstechnik mit zwei Spezialtechniken, der Randomized-ResponseTechnik (RRT) und der Item-Count-Technik (ICT), verglichen. Die RRT und die ICT wurden für die Messung besonders heikler Verhaltensweisen entwickelt und sollen durch eine Erhçhung der Anonymität in der Interviewsituation sozial erwünschtes Antwortverhalten reduzieren. Unsere Befunde zeigen, dass die häufig angenommene Wirkung der beiden Spezialtechniken auf die Bereitschaft der Befragten, sozial unerwünschtes Verhalten zu berichten, nicht eindeutig ausfällt. Zudem werden theoretisch bedeutsame Einflussfaktoren von Schwarzarbeit diskutiert und deren Wirkung im Rahmen von multiplen Regressionsanalysen empirisch überprüft. Neben Gelegenheitsstrukturen sind vor allem soziale Normen gute Prädiktoren für die individuelle Entscheidung schwarzzuarbeiten.Schlagworte: Schwarzarbeit; Schattenwirtschaft; Heikle Fragen; Soziale Erwünschtheit; Randomized-Response-Technik; Item-Count-Technik.Summary: This article explores methods used to obtain a higher validity in estimates of the prevalence of undeclared work in Germany in surveys within the general population. Using an experimental design two "dejeopardizing" techniques are compared as alternatives to direct questioning when asking sensitive questions: the randomized response technique (RRT) and the item count technique (ICT). These techniques were specifically developed to reduce misreporting on sensitive topics: The goal is to elicit a higher proportion of honest answers from respondents by increasing the anonymity of the question-and-answer process. Our results suggest that neither RRT nor ICT provide unambiguous results with respect to more successful elicitation of reports of socially undesirable behavior. In addition, the theoretically significant influence of background variables is investigated empirically by means of multiple regression. Factors which foster illicit work are, aside from opportunity structures, social norms, which contribute significantly to the explanation of individual decisions to engage in undeclared work.

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National governments around the world increasingly acknowledge the possibility of introducing new digital forms of money and implementing policies that trigger their adoption. Knowledge about the acceptance of such measures, however, is rather limited. Next to the regulatory uncertainty about the impact of a Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) on competition, on financial stability and questions on the integrity and technical implementations of a CBDC, recent announcements of the joint venture of e.g. the European Central Bank with a large and globally operating private company emphatically raise questions about data privacy. Therefore, we report results of a survey experiment conducted in the United States of America, Germany and India to investigate the acceptance of an app-based monthly digital payment similar to a Universal Basic Income and investigate its adoption across income levels. Controlling for privacy features and short-term vs. long-term incentives to adopt the digital payment app, we find strong reservations with regard to the involvement of multinational tech companies in establishing new digital mediums of exchange, while also finding contextual differences in acceptance levels between the studied populations.