Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) has been used in commercial applications and detected in environmental matrices. This study focuses on whether PFOA affects the function of immune organs (spleen and thymus). Male ICR mice were exposed to 0, 2, 10, 50, and 250 ppm of PFOA in drinking water for 21 days. PFOA differently altered T lymphocyte populations. In the spleen, all doses of PFOA decreased CD8(+) lymphocytes; CD4(+) lymphocytes were increased by 50 and 250 ppm of PFOA. Exposure to 250 ppm of PFOA increased CD8(+) lymphocytes in the thymus. In the histopathological evaluation, the spleen of 250 ppm PFOA-treated groups revealed the increase of lymphoid hyperplasia of white pulp without significant alteration of red pulp. The thymus of 250 ppm PFOA-treated group showed decreased thickness of the cortex and medulla, but lymphoid cells were more densely arranged. PFOA elevated the expression of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-1beta, and interleukin-6) in the spleen, and proto-oncogene, c-myc, in the spleen and thymus. In conclusion, our data demonstrated that PFOA has an immunomodulatory effect by altering T lymphocyte phenotypes and gene expression of proinflammatory cytokines.
Physical activity has profound effects on neuronal progenitor cell growth, differentiation, and integration, but the mechanism for these effects is still ambiguous. Using a mouse model, we investigated the effects of two weeks of treadmill running on the dynamics of the size distribution and miRNA profiles of serum extracellular derivatives (EDs) using particle-sizing analysis and small RNA sequencing. We found that an increased average diameter of EDs in the running group compared with the sedentary group (p < 0.05), and 16 miRNAs were significantly altered (p < 0.05) in the running group. Furthermore, functional annotation analysis of differentially expressed miRNA-predicted target genes showed that many of these target genes are involved in the PI3K-Akt pathway. Exerciseinduced serum EDs increased Neuro2A cell viability and Akt phosphorylation. We also found that expression levels of neuronal maturation markers such as Microtubule-Associated Protein 2 (MAP2ab) and Neuronal nuclei (NeuN) were increased (p < 0.05, respectively), and that inhibition of the PI3K-Akt pathway by LY294002 pre-treatment ameliorated their expression in Neuro2A cells. Finally, the administration of exercise-induced EDs for 3 days increased the Histone 3 phosphorylation and β-iii tubulin expression in Ink/Arf null neural stem cells and progenitors (NSPCs) under each proliferation and differentiation condition. These results suggest that exercise-induced circulating EDs may mediate neuronal maturation during exercise. Enhanced synaptic plasticity, neurogenesis and neuronal maturation by prolonged exercise mediate improved aspects of brain function, such as motor skills, cognition and mood 1,2. Neuronal maturation is a continuous developmental process that modifies shape, structure and functional adaptations, playing a pivotal role in the augmentation of the neuronal network 3. Evidence suggests that the neurotrophic signaling system, neurotransmitter system, inflammatory system and cerebral vascular system are involved in neuronal maturation-related brain function and behaviors 4-8. Different types of physical activity have been shown to influence neuronal activities such as neurogenesis and maturation in various regions of the brain 9-11. Aerobic exercise increases cerebral blood flow (CBF) and angiogenesis in the motor cortex, which is linked to neurogenesis in mice and humans 11,12. Running also plays a role in neuronal maturation in mice 13. However, the effects of resistance exercise on neurogenesis remain controversial. Miriam et al. found that resistance exercise does not affect adult hippocampal neurogenesis in rats, while Nagamatsu et al. found that resistance exercise improves cognitive and functional brain plasticity in the elderly 14,15. The underlying mechanism for the beneficial effects of physical activity on the brain is currently being investigated. Research has focused on factors such as IRISIN, APLN (Apelin), CTSB (Cathepsin B) and many interleukins that circulate during exercise 16-20. The exercise-mimetic effects of e...
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