No abstract

Sterol regulatory element binding protein-1 (SREBP-1) is a key transcription factor that regulates lipogenesis in rodent liver. Two isoforms (SREBP-1a and SREBP-1c) of SREBP-1 are transcribed by an alternative promoter on the same gene (SREBF1), and the isoforms differ only in their first exon. Although the regulatory effects of SREBP-1 on lipid and milk fat synthesis have received much attention in ruminants, SREBP-1c promoter and its regulatory mechanisms have not been characterized in the goat. In the present study, we cloned and sequenced a 2,012-bp fragment of the SREBP-1c 5'-flanking region from goat genomic DNA. A luciferase reporter assay revealed that SREBP-1c is transcriptionally activated by the liver X receptor α (LXRα) agonist T0901317, and is decreased by SREBP-1 small interfering (si)RNA. A 5' deletion analysis revealed a core promoter region located -395 to +1 bp upstream of the transcriptional start site (TSS). Site-directed mutagenesis of LXRα binding elements (LXRE1 and LXRE2) and sterol regulatory elements (SRE1 and SRE2) revealed that the full effects of T 4506585 require the presence of both LXRE and SRE. We also characterized a new SRE (SRE1) and demonstrated a direct role of SREBP-1 (auto-loop regulation) in maintaining its basal transcription activity. Results suggest that goat SREBP-1c gene is transcriptionally regulated by mature SREBP-1 (auto-loop circuit regulation) and LXRα in goat mammary epithelial cells.

No abstract

In nonruminants, thyroid hormone responsive (THRSP) is a crucial protein for cellular de novo lipogenesis. However, the role of THRSP in regulating the synthesis of milk fatty acid composition in goat mammary gland remains unknown. In the present study, we compared gene expression of THRSP among different goat tissues. Results revealed that THRSP had the highest expression in subcutaneous fat, and expression was higher during lactation compared with the dry period. Overexpression of THRSP upregulated the expression of fatty acid synthase (FASN), stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase 1 (SCD1), diacylglycerol acyltransferase 2 (DGAT2), and glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAM) in goat mammary epithelial cells. In contrast, overexpression of THRSP led to downregulation of thrombospondin receptor (CD36) and had no effect on the expression of acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase α (ACACA) and sterol regulatory element binding transcription factor1 (SREBF1). In addition, overexpressing THRSP in vitro resulted in a significant increase in triacylglycerol (TAG) concentration and the concentrations of C12:0 and C14:0. Taken together, these results highlight an important role of THRSP in regulating lipogenesis in goat mammary epithelial cells.

Stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase 1 (SCD1) is a pivotal enzyme in the biosynthesis of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA). It is tightly regulated by transcription factors that control lipogenesis. In nonruminants, liver X receptor α (LXRα) is a nuclear receptor and transcription factor that acts as a key sensor of cholesterol and lipid homeostasis. However, the mechanism whereby LXRα regulates the expression and transcriptional activity of SCD1 in ruminant mammary cells remains unknown. In this study with goat mammary epithelial cells (GMEC), the LXRα agonist T 4506585 (T09) markedly enhanced the mRNA expression of SCD1 and sterol regulatory element binding factor 1 (SREBF1). The concentrations of C16:1 and C18:1 and their desaturation indices also were increased by LXRα activation. However, knockdown of LXRα did not alter the mRNA expression of SCD1. Although SCD1 was repressed by SREBF1 knockdown, T09 significantly increased SCD1 expression. Further analysis revealed that the SCD1 promoter activity was activated by LXRα overexpression. The goat SCD1 promoter contains 2 LXR response elements (LXRE), 1 sterol response element (SRE), and 1 nuclear factor Y (NF-Y) binding site. Site-directed mutagenesis of LXRE1, LXRE2, or SRE alone did not eliminate the upregulation of SCD1 when LXRα was overexpressed. In contrast, when NF-Y alone or in combination with SRE was mutated simultaneously, the basal transcriptional activity of the SCD1 promoter was markedly decreased and did not respond to LXRα overexpression. Furthermore, when SREBF1 was knocked down, overexpression of LXRα did not affect the promoter activity of SCD1. Together, these data suggest that LXRα regulates the expression of SCD1 through increasing SREBP-1 abundance to promote interaction with SRE and NF-Y binding sites. The present study provides evidence that LXRα is involved in the synthesis of MUFA in the goat mammary gland through an indirect mechanism.

In nonruminants it has been demonstrated that microRNA-24 (miR-24) is involved in preadipocyte differentiation, hepatic lipid, and plasma triacylglycerol synthesis. However, its role in ruminant mammary gland remains unclear. In this study we measured miR-24 expression in goat mammary gland tissue at 4 different stages of lactation and observed that it had highest expression at peak lactation when compared with the dry period. Overexpression or downregulation of miR-24 in goat mammary epithelial cells (GMEC) strongly affected fatty acid profiles; in particular, miR-24 enhanced unsaturated fatty acid concentration. Additional effects of miR-24 included changes in triacylglycerol content and the expression of fatty acid synthase, sterol regulatory element binding transcription protein 1, stearoyl-CoA desaturase, glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase mitochondrial, and acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Luciferase reporter assay confirmed that fatty acid synthase is a target of miR-24. Taken together, these results not only highlight the physiological importance of miR-24 in fatty acid metabolism in GMEC, but also laid the foundation for further research on regulatory mechanisms among miR-24 and other microRNA expressed in GMEC.

Merlot wines from four premium wine-producing districts in China were analysed for their volatile composition and sensory properties. Fifty-seven aroma compounds were quantified by SPME-GC-MSOAV analysis, which showed that thirty of these compounds were active on the basis of their odour active value (OAV). According to the aroma descriptions of eleven impact odorants in all the sample wines, the collective aroma characteristics of Chinese Merlot red wine are complex. Its main flavour is that of some tropical and temperate fruits, such as banana, pineapple, green apple, pear and strawberry, along with a lactic flavour from the malolactic fermentation. It also has some traits of processed fruits, Muscat and floral pollen flavour. Moreover, different districts gave Merlot wine distinct characters. Changli wine had a higher intensity and complexity of global aroma, a strong fruity aroma, and an obvious nuance of lactic and nut traits. The sine from Helanshan had weak fusel flavour and some lemon fruity flavour. Shacheng wine had weak fusel flavour, along with green grass and some fruity flavour of raspberry and violet. Manasi wine had the odour of unpleasant fatty acids and phenol due to its high content of fatty acids and volatile phenol. The sensory analysis confirmed the aroma prediction from the active odorants of the sample wines. Changli wine had the highest sensory scores, while Manasi wine had the worst evaluation of aroma, taste and harmony. The results suggest that the Merlot variety is more suitable for planting in Changli than in the Manasi region.

Stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase 1 (SCD1) is a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of palmitoleic and oleic acid. Although the transcriptional regulatory mechanism of SCD1 via polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) has been extensively explored in nonruminants, the existence of such mechanism in ruminant mammary gland remains unknown. In this study, we used goat genomic DNA to clone and sequence a 1,713-bp fragment of the SCD1 5' flanking region. Deletion assays revealed a core region of the promoter located between -415 and -109 bp upstream of the transcription start site, and contained the highly conserved PUFA response region. An intact PUFA response region was required for the basal transcriptional activity of SCD1. Linoleic acid reduced endogenous expression of SCD1 and sterol regulatory element binding factor-1 (SREBF1) in goat mammary epithelial cells. Further analysis indicated that both the sterol response element (SRE) and the nuclear factor Y (NF-Y) binding site in the SCD1 promoter were responsible for the inhibition effect by linoleic acid, whereas the effect was abrogated once NF-Y was deleted. In addition, SRE and NF-Y were partly responsible for the transcriptional activation induced via the liver X receptor agonist T 4506585 (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO). When goat mammary epithelial cells were cultured with linoleic acid, addition of T 4506585 markedly increased SCD1 transcription in controls, but had no effect on cells with a deleted SRE promoter. These results demonstrated that linoleic acid can regulate SCD1 expression at the transcriptional level through SRE and NF-Y in a liver X receptor-dependent fashion in the goat mammary gland.