In megabar shock waves, materials compress and undergo a phase transition to a dense charged-particle system that is dominated by strong correlations and quantum effects. This complex state, known as warm dense matter, exists in planetary interiors and many laboratory experiments (for example, during high-power laser interactions with solids or the compression phase of inertial confinement fusion implosions). Here, we apply record peak brightness X-rays at the Linac Coherent Light Source to resolve ionic interactions at atomic (ångström) scale lengths and to determine their physical properties. Our in situ measurements characterize the compressed lattice and resolve the transition to warm dense matter, demonstrating that short-range repulsion between ions must be accounted for to obtain accurate structure factor and equation of state data. In addition, the unique properties of the X-ray laser provide plasmon spectra that yield the temperature and density with unprecedented precision at micrometre-scale resolution in dynamic compression experiments. M aterials exposed to high pressures of 1 Mbar and above have recently been the subject of increased attention due to their importance for the physics of planetary formation 1-3 , for material science 4 and for inertial confinement fusion research 5 . The behaviour of shock-compressed aluminium is of particular interest because it has been proposed as a standard for shock-wave experiments 6 and is widely used for equation-of-state 7,8 and warm dense matter (WDM) 9,10 studies. At room temperature, aluminium has three delocalized electrons, so it provides a prototype for an ideal electron fluid. As temperatures and pressures increase, compressing and breaking ionic lattice bonds, strong ionic forces remain, resulting in significant deviations from a simple fluid.Simulations using density functional theory coupled to manyparticle molecular dynamics (DFT-MD) have evolved into an ab initio tool to explore this regime of high-pressure physics 11,12 . To date, these simulations have been used to predict physical properties derived from optical observations of particle and shock velocities. Studies of structural properties that are sensitive to many-particle electron-ion and ion-ion interaction physics 13 have been challenging 14 , although recent progress has been made using X-ray absorption spectroscopy 15,16 . Early experiments on fourth-generation light sources 17 have made use of X-ray diffraction and measured the structural evolution from elastic to plastic states 18 . However, pressures in the Mbar regime, as required for melting many solids, have only recently become available at the Matter in Extreme Conditions (MEC) instrument at the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS).Here we visualize, for the first time, the evolution of compressed matter across the melting line and the coexistence regime into a WDM state. The combination of high-power optical lasers and the X-ray beam at MEC provides high-resolution X-ray scattering at multi-Mbar pressures. Our data provide the io...

The shock-induced transition from graphite to diamond has been of great scientific and technological interest since the discovery of microscopic diamonds in remnants of explosively driven graphite. Furthermore, shock synthesis of diamond and lonsdaleite, a speculative hexagonal carbon polymorph with unique hardness, is expected to happen during violent meteor impacts. Here, we show unprecedented in situ X-ray diffraction measurements of diamond formation on nanosecond timescales by shock compression of pyrolytic as well as polycrystalline graphite to pressures from 19 GPa up to 228 GPa. While we observe the transition to diamond starting at 50 GPa for both pyrolytic and polycrystalline graphite, we also record the direct formation of lonsdaleite above 170 GPa for pyrolytic samples only. Our experiment provides new insights into the processes of the shock-induced transition from graphite to diamond and uniquely resolves the dynamics that explain the main natural occurrence of the lonsdaleite crystal structure being close to meteor impact sites.

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The matter in extreme conditions end station at the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) is a new tool enabling accurate pump–probe measurements for studying the physical properties of matter in the high-energy density (HED) physics regime. This instrument combines the world’s brightest x-ray source, the LCLS x-ray beam, with high-power lasers consisting of two nanosecond Nd:glass laser beams and one short-pulse Ti:sapphire laser. These lasers produce short-lived states of matter with high pressures, high temperatures or high densities with properties that are important for applications in nuclear fusion research, laboratory astrophysics and the development of intense radiation sources. In the first experiments, we have performed highly accurate x-ray diffraction and x-ray Thomson scattering measurements on shock-compressed matter resolving the transition from compressed solid matter to a co-existence regime and into the warm dense matter state. These complex charged-particle systems are dominated by strong correlations and quantum effects. They exist in planetary interiors and laboratory experiments, e.g., during high-power laser interactions with solids or the compression phase of inertial confinement fusion implosions. Applying record peak brightness x-rays resolves the ionic interactions at atomic (Ångstrom) scale lengths and measure the static structure factor, which is a key quantity for determining equation of state data and important transport coefficients. Simultaneously, spectrally resolved measurements of plasmon features provide dynamic structure factor information that yield temperature and density with unprecedented precision at micron-scale resolution in dynamic compression experiments. These studies have demonstrated our ability to measure fundamental thermodynamic properties that determine the state of matter in the HED physics regime.

The strong ion-ion correlation peak characteristic of warm dense matter (WDM) is observed for the first time using simultaneous angularly, temporally, and spectrally resolved x-ray scattering measurements in laser-driven shock-compressed aluminum. Laser-produced molybdenum x-ray line emission at an energy of 17.9 keV is employed to probe aluminum compressed to a density of ρ>8 g/cm(3). We observe a well pronounced peak in the static structure factor at a wave number of k=4.0 Å(-1). The measurements of the magnitude and position of this correlation peak are precise enough to test different theoretical models for the ion structure and show that only models taking the complex interaction in WDM into account agree with the data. This also demonstrates a new highly accurate diagnostic to directly measure the state of compression of warm dense matter.

We calculate the dynamic structure factor (DSF) in warm dense beryllium by means of ab initio molecular dynamics simulations. The dynamic conductivity is derived from the Kubo-Greenwood formula, and a Drudelike behaviour is observed. The corresponding dielectric function is used to determine the DSF. Since the ab initio approach is so far only applicable for wavenumbers k = 0, the k-dependence of the dielectric function is modelled via the Mermin ansatz. We present the results for the dielectric function and DSF of warm dense beryllium and compare these with perturbative treatments such as the Born-Mermin approximation. We found considerable differences between the results of these approaches; this underlines the need for a first-principles determination of the DSF of warm dense matter. Gesellschaft checked with benchmarking experiments. A versatile and reliable tool for this purpose is x-ray Thomson scattering (XRTS) [1,2], which gains the plasma parameters directly from the dynamic structure factor (DSF) [3]. X-rays penetrate dense matter, and intense x-ray sources are now available to perform scattering experiments. For instance, intense x-ray pulses are produced either by energetic optical lasers or by free-electron lasers in the soft or hard x-ray regimes.X-rays emitted from laser-produced plasmas [4,5] can probe the region from warm dense matter (WDM) [6,7] with temperatures of several eV and densities close to solid density [8][9][10] up to compressed matter well above solid density and at electron temperatures of 0.1 eV and several tens of eV [11][12][13][14][AQ ID=Q1]. The outstanding applications of XRTS are, e.g., in-flight measurements of laser-driven implosion dynamics of inertial confinement fusion capsules [15] and of radiative heating and cooling dynamics of matter [16], both on ns time scales. Plasmas in the near-solid density regime have also been probed by combining optical lasers (pump) and soft x-rays (probe) [17].The plasma parameters electron temperature T e , free-electron density n e and the mean ionization state Z can be derived by analyzing the XRTS signal. The electron temperature can be inferred from the universal detailed balance relation, whereas the electron density follows from the plasmon dispersion in the collective scattering mode [8,18,19].XRTS experiments have been performed on beryllium for different conditions [8,10,12,20]. It is a potential ablator material in inertial confinement fusion capsules [21] and also relevant for astrophysics considering the neutrino capture reactions in the Sun and the problem of neutrino oscillations [22]. In this paper, we determine the DSF for uncompressed beryllium (u-Be [10]: T e = 12 eV, ρ = 1.85 g cm −3 ) and threefold compressed beryllium (c-Be [12]: T e = 13 eV, ρ = 5.5 g cm −3 ), thereby studying the effect of strong correlations characterized by electron coupling parameters e = e 2 4π 0 k B T e 4πn e 3

We have developed an experimental platform for the National Ignition Facility that uses spherically converging shock waves for absolute equation-of-state (EOS) measurements along the principal Hugoniot. In this Letter, we present one indirect-drive implosion experiment with a polystyrene sample that employs radiographic compression measurements over a range of shock pressures reaching up to 60 Mbar (6 TPa). This significantly exceeds previously published results obtained on the Nova laser [R. Cauble et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 80, 1248 (1998)PRLTAO0031-900710.1103/PhysRevLett.80.1248] at a strongly improved precision, allowing us to discriminate between different EOS models. We find excellent agreement with Kohn-Sham density-functional-theory-based molecular dynamics simulations.

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