Half a century after Schill and Lüttringhaus carried out the first directed synthesis of a [2]catenane, a plethora of strategies now exist for the construction of molecular Hopf links (singly interlocked rings), the simplest type of catenane. The precision and effectiveness with which suitable templates and/or noncovalent interactions can arrange building blocks has also enabled the synthesis of intricate and often beautiful higher order interlocked systems, including Solomon links, Borromean rings, and a Star of David catenane. This Review outlines the diverse strategies that exist for synthesizing catenanes in the 21st century and examines their emerging applications and the challenges that still exist for the synthesis of more complex topologies.

Anions included: A series of meso‐tetraaryl calix[4]pyrrole receptors have been used as a model system to quantify chloride–π interactions in solution (see picture; green balls are chloride ions). The free energy values are generally indicative of a repulsive interaction; their magnitude depends on the substituent on the aromatic ring.

Small alterations to the structure of a star-shaped template totally change its mode of operation. The hexapyridyl template directs the conversion of a porphyrin dimer to the cyclic hexamer, but deleting one pyridine site changes the product to the cyclic decamer, while deleting two binding sites changes the product to the cyclic octamer. This surprising switch in selectivity is explained by the formation of 2:1 caterpillar track complexes, in which two template wheels bind inside the nanoring. Caterpillar track complexes can also be prepared by binding the hexapyridyl template inside the 8- and 10-porphyrin nanorings. NMR exchange spectroscopy (EXSY) experiments show that these complexes exhibit correlated motion, in which the conrotatory rotation of the two template wheels is coupled to rotation of the nanoring track. In the case of the 10-porphyrin system, the correlated motion can be locked by binding palladium(II) dichloride between the two templates.

Herein, we report our latest experimental investigations of halide-π interactions in solution. We base this research on the thermodynamic characterization of a series of 1:1 complexes formed between halides (Cl(-), Br(-), and I(-)) and several α,α-isomers of "two-wall" calix[4]pyrrole receptors bearing two six-membered aromatic rings in opposed meso positions. The installed aromatic systems feature a broad range of electron density as indicated by the calculated values for their electrostatic surface potentials at the center of the rings. We show that a correlation exists between the electronic nature of the aromatic walls and the thermodynamic stability of the X(-)⊂receptor complexes. We give evidence for the existence of both repulsive and attractive interactions between π systems and halide anions in solution (between 1 and -1 kcal/mol). We dissect the measured free energies of binding for chloride and bromide with the receptor series into their enthalpic and entropic thermodynamic quantities. In acetonitrile solution, the binding enthalpy values remain almost constant throughout the receptor series, and the differences in free energies are provoked exclusively by changes in the entropic term of the binding processes. Most likely, this unexpected behavior is owed to strong solvation effects that make up important components of the measured magnitudes for the enthalpies and entropies of binding. The use of chloroform, a much less polar solvent, limits the impact of solvation effects revealing the expected existence of a parallel trend between free energies and enthalpies of binding. This result indicates that halide-π interactions in organic solvents are mainly driven by enthalpy. However, the typical paradigm of enthalpy-entropy compensation is still not observed in this less polar solvent.

A cyclic porphyrin trimer has been synthesized which has a high affinity for fullerenes. It forms 1:1 complexes with C(60) and C(70) with association constants of 2 x 10(6) and 2 x 10(8) M(-1), respectively, in toluene. Its affinities for C(86) and La@C(82) are too strong to measure by fluorescence titration. The solvent dependence of the association constants shows that solvation of both the guest and the host influence the binding strength.