Community-acquired pneumonia continues to be the acute infectious disease that has the greatest medical and social impact regarding morbidity and treatment costs. Children and the elderly are more susceptible to severe complications, thereby justifying the fact that the prevention measures adopted have focused on these age brackets. Despite the advances in the knowledge of etiology and physiopathology, as well as the improvement in preliminary clinical and therapeutic methods, various questions merit further investigation. This is due to the clinical, social, demographical and structural diversity, which cannot be fully predicted. Consequently, guidelines are published in order to compile the most recent knowledge in a systematic way and to promote the rational use of that knowledge in medical practice. Therefore, guidelines are not a rigid set of rules that must be followed, but first and foremost a tool to be used in a critical way, bearing in mind the variability of biological and human responses within their individual and social contexts. This document represents the conclusion of a detailed discussion among the members of the Scientific Board and Respiratory Infection Committee of the Brazilian Thoracic Association. The objective of the work group was to present relevant topics in order to update the previous guidelines. We attempted to avoid the repetition of consensual concepts. The principal objective of creating this document was to present a compilation of the recent advances published in the literature and, consequently, to contribute to improving the quality of the medical care provided to immunocompetent adult patients with community-acquired pneumonia.Keywords: Pneumonia; Diagnosis; Epidemiology; Practice guideline; Primary prevention. ResumoA pneumonia adquirida na comunidade mantém-se como a doença infecciosa aguda de maior impacto médico-social quanto à morbidade e a custos relacionados ao tratamento. Os grupos etários mais suscetíveis de complicações graves situam-se entre os extremos de idade, fato que tem justificado a adoção de medidas de prevenção dirigidas a esses estratos populacionais. Apesar do avanço no conhecimento no campo da etiologia e da fisiopatologia, assim como no aperfeiçoamento dos métodos propedêuticos e terapêuticos, inúmeros pontos merecem ainda investigação adicional. Isto se deve à diversidade clínica, social, demográfica e estrutural, que são tópicos que não podem ser previstos em sua totalidade. Dessa forma, a publicação de diretrizes visa agrupar de maneira sistematizada o conhecimento atualizado e propor sua aplicação racional na prática médica. Não se trata, portanto, de uma regra rígida a ser seguida, mas, antes, de uma ferramenta para ser utilizada de forma crítica, tendo em vista a variabilidade da resposta biológica e do ser humano, no seu contexto individual e social. Esta diretriz constitui o resultado de uma discussão ampla entre os membros do Conselho Científico e da Comissão de Infecções Respiratórias da Sociedade Brasileira de Pneumologia e Tisiol...

The locus coeruleus (LC) has been suggested as a CO2 chemoreceptor site in mammals. This nucleus is a mesencephalic structure of the amphibian brain and is probably homologous to the LC in mammals. There are no data available for the role of LC in the central chemoreception of amphibians. Thus the present study was designed to investigate whether LC of toads (Bufo schneideri) is a CO 2/H ϩ chemoreceptor site. Fos immunoreactivity was used to verify whether the nucleus is activated by hypercarbia (5% CO2 in air). In addition, we assessed the role of noradrenergic LC neurons on respiratory and cardiovascular responses to hypercarbia by using 6-hydroxydopamine lesion. To further explore the role of LC in central chemosensitivity, we examined the effects of microinjection of solutions with different pH values (7.2, 7.4, 7.6, 7.8, and 8.0) into the nucleus. Our main findings were that 1) a marked increase in c-fos-positive cells in the LC was induced after 3 h of breathing a hypercarbic gas mixture; 2) chemical lesions in the LC attenuated the increase of the ventilatory response to hypercarbia but did not affect ventilation under resting conditions; and 3) microinjection with acid solutions (pH ϭ 7.2, 7.4, and 7.6) into the LC elicited an increased ventilation, indicating that the LC of toads participates in the central chemoreception.ventilation; midbrain; brain stem; amphibian; isthmus; bufo; hypercarbia IT IS WELL ESTABLISHED THAT vertebrates display respiratory responses to changes in the arterial blood gases, and the underlying control mechanisms are very similar among different taxa. The transition of amphibians to air breathing was accompanied by an increase in the sensitivity to CO 2 /H ϩ (45). Interestingly, the ontogenetic changes of anuran amphibians involve modifications of the control system from being almost entirely oxygen driven to a combination of acid-base and oxygen driven (11).Central respiratory CO 2 chemoreceptors have been clearly established in adult anuran amphibians (8,46), and these receptors are probably distributed throughout the rostral medulla, surrounding the fourth ventricle (50). In mammals, these receptors were once thought to be located only close to the surface of the ventral medulla, but it is now clear that they are widespread within the brainstem (12). Recently, sites have been identified in the ventrolateral medulla, nucleus of the solitary tract, ventral respiratory group, locus coeruleus (LC), caudal medullary raphe, and fastigial nucleus of the cerebellum (for a review, see Ref. 35). However, it remains unclear whether chemoreceptors are also widely distributed in amphibians. An evaluation of specific contributions of these chemosensitive sites can be achieved by CO 2 challenge, focal stimulation, or focal disruption. Focal acidification of a single central chemosensitive site increases ventilation, whereas disruption decreases ventilation (3,28,37,47). According to Nattie (35), the presence of widespread central chemoreceptors may be related to the increased demands of a...

Tropheryma whipplei, the causative bacterium of Whipple's disease, can cause acute pneumonia. We performed a case-control study including patients with T. whipplei in bronchoalveolar lavages (BALs) and controls in order to compare patients' clinical statuses. We tested T. whipplei PCR from January 2013 to December 2014, in all the 1438 BALs in Marseille, France. Controls were hospitalized in the same unit during the same period and were comparable in age and sex. Eighty-eight BALs (6.1%) were positive for T. whipplei and 58 patients had pneumonia. Sixty-four patients were male with a mean age of 50.5 years. T. whipplei was commonly associated with aspiration pneumonia (18/88 patients compared with 6/88 controls, p 0.01) and was detected as a unique pathogen in nine cases. Overall, no difference was observed regarding immunocompromised status. Nevertheless, the six AIDS-infected patients in the T. whipplei group had a significantly lower CD4 level than the five AIDS-infected patients in the control group (49 vs. 320/mm, p 0.01); in addition, five patients were treated with tumour necrosis factor alpha inhibitors (including three treated by monocolonal antibodies and two with soluble receptor) compared with none of the controls (p 0.03). Pneumocystis jirovecii was frequently associated with the T. whipplei group (7/88 vs. 0/88 in control group), Pseudomonas aeruginosa was only detected in the control group (8/88). This study adds evidence for a causative role of T. whipplei in pneumonia. In the future, an experimental model of pneumonia induced by T. whipplei will prove its role in pneumonia.

Noninfectious or unusual infectious diseases may present with clinical, radiological and laboratorial characteristics of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). Usually their presence is only suspected after treatment failure, leading to inappropriate interventions, unnecessary costs and risks related to the untreated potentially life-threatening disease. The present study aimed to assess the noninfectious or unusual infectious diseases that may be misdiagnosed as CAP that progresses with treatment failure. Sixteen hospitalized patients with presumptive diagnosis of CAP and treatment failure were described. The most prevalent symptoms were fever and cough. Radiological pattern of air-space disease was observed in 10 (62%) patients. The diagnosis was established by autopsy (12%) or invasive procedures (88%), as follows: open lung biopsy (nine), flexible fiberoptic bronchoscopy (two), transthoracic fine needle aspiration (two) and bone marrow aspiration (one). Eight patients had noninfectious diseases: pulmonary embolism, cryptogenic organizing pneumonia, Wegener's granulomatosis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, bronchocentric granulomatosis, neoplastic disease and acute leukemia. The unusual infectious diseases were: tuberculosis, cryptococcosis, actinomycosis, histoplasmosis and paracoccidioidomycosis. Patients with noninfectious or unusual infectious diseases may present with symptoms and radiological findings that mimic CAP. These diseases should always be suspected in patients who do not respond to initial empirical antimicrobial treatment, especially young patients or those without comorbidity.

In the present pilot study, our aim was to investigate whether associations could be demonstrated in psychiatric patients between the changes in plasma lipid and lipoprotein levels expected during treatment with psychoactive drugs and the changes in the patients' depressive and hostile behavior. One hundred and fourteen patients with various psychiatric disorders (depressive episode in bipolar affective disorder, depressive episode or recurrent depressive disorder, paranoid schizophrenia, and schizoaffective disorders) were included in the study. The following examinations were carried out in each patient on admission and at discharge: (1) the plasma lipid parameters total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and triglycerides (TRI) were determined, and (2) the psychopathological features were recorded employing the AMDP system and the AMDP Syndrome Scales. Within the context of a naturalistic clinical setting with a choice of psychoactive drugs available, patients were subdivided at the end of treatment into eight treatment groups, as follows: group 1, treatment with butyrophenones; group 2, treatment with tricyclics; group 3, treatment with butyrophenones and tricyclics; group 4, treatment with butyrophenones, tricyclics and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors; group 5, treatment with butyrophenones and lithium; group 6, treatment with tricyclics and lithium; group 7, treatment with butyrophenones, tricyclics and lithium; and group 8, treatment with butyrophenones, tricyclics, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and lithium. To compare the changes in the eight treatment groups, mixed general linear models including diagnosis, gender, age, body mass index changes, and baseline values were applied using proc GLM of SAS. Butyrophenones induce an increase in TC, LDL, and TC/TRI ratio, whereas tricyclics lead to an increase in TC, LDL, VLDL, and TRI. In combined medication of butyrophenones and tricyclics the effects of tricyclics predominate. Comedication of lithium inhibits the increase in TC and LDL induced by butyrophenones and/or tricyclics. Treatment groups with lipid changes of the same type (decrease, no change, or increase) were combined in "lipid change groups". Analyses of variance or covariance (with psychopathological admission value as covariate where there were significant differences in psychopathological admission mean values between the groups) of these lipid change groups with regard to the changes in the Depressive Syndrome Scale and the Hostility Syndrome Scale gave results which are interpreted as follows: an increase in TC or LDL inhibits the remission of hostility, whereas an increase in TRI with concomitant decrease in TC, or else a relatively greater increase in TRI than in TC promotes the remission of hostility. A decrease in TRI or VLDL promotes the remission of depression. Our data and findings published in the literature may suggest that systemic changes in plasma lipid parameters, at the cellular l...

A retired, hypertensive 67-year-old male, a former smoker and alcoholic, was referred to our facility with complaints of progressive dyspnea, wheezing and chest pain for the last 6 months. A chest X-ray obtained 8 years previously showed right hilar enlargement. He also had a long-standing history of episodic hemoptysis that ceased 10 years prior, together with a history of recurrent respiratory infections. Upon physical examination, he presented diminished breath sounds and slight crackles at the lung bases. A second chest X-ray revealed no changes in comparison with the first. The IntroductionThe amyloidoses constitute a group of diseases in which extracellular protein folding, or rather misfolding, plays a prominent role.(1) The disease can be hereditary or acquired and can be systemic or localized. Some patients are asymptomatic, whereas others exhibit a range of symptoms, and, in certain cases, the disorder can even be severe and life-threatening.(2) Tracheobronchial amyloidosis is an uncommon localized form of amyloidosis, characterized by amyloid deposits restricted to the trachea, main bronchi and segmental bronchi. AbstractTracheobronchial amyloidosis is an uncommon localized form of amyloidosis, characterized by amyloid deposits restricted to the trachea, main bronchi and segmental bronchi. We present the case of a retired 67-year-old man with long-term progressive dyspnea, wheezing and chest pain. A diagnosis of tracheobronchial amyloidosis was made after the third fiberoptic bronchoscopy and histological confirmation through Congo red staining of tissue samples.Keywords: Amyloidosis/trachea; Bronchoscopy; Tracheal diseases/diagnosis. ResumoA amiloidose traqueobrônquica é uma forma pouco comum de amiloidose localizada, caracterizada por depósitos amilóides limitados à traquéia, brônquios principais e brônquios segmentares. Nós apresentamos o caso de um homem aposentado de 67 anos com dispnéia progressiva de longa data, sibilância e dor torácica. O diagnóstico de amiloidose traqueobrônquica foi realizado após três fibrobroncoscopias e confirmação histopatológica com coloração vermelho congo.Descritores: Amiloidose/traquéia; Broncoscopia; Doenças da traquéia/diagnóstico.

A 69-year-old female smoker (30 packyears) homemaker from São Sepe, Brazil, presented with rheumatoid arthritis for 14 years. The patient had undergone a thyroidectomy 20 years before. The epidemiological history was not clear regarding possible fungal exposure. The patient had been experiencing progressive dyspnea, productive cough, recurrent respiratory infections, loss of appetite, nausea and weight loss for 4 years. The patient was using levothyroxine, calcitriol and prednisone 15 mg/day; however, she had previously used methotrexate. Physical examination revealed that the patient had lost weight (patient weight at the time was 30 kg, and body mass index was 14 kg/m 2 ). No cervical lymph node enlargement, supraclavic- IntroductionHistoplasmosis is a systemic mycosis caused by the thermally dimorphic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum, which can be isolated from soil contaminated with droppings from birds or bats. (1,2) Similar to other systemic mycoses, the initial exposure is through inhalation, and pulmonary impairment is the predominant form of presentation of the disease. Large outbreaks of the disease have been reported; however, most of the infections are sporadic. (3) Chronic pulmonary histoplasmosis is a rare clinical manifestation of the disease that affects the upper lobes of the lungs and can present as cavitation and fibrosis. (4)(5)(6)(7) We report the case of a female patient with chronic cavitary pulmonary histoplasmosis (CCPH). AbstractHistoplasmosis is a systemic mycosis caused by the thermally dimorphic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum, which can be isolated from soil contaminated with droppings from birds or bats. Chronic cavitary pulmonary histoplasmosis is one of the rarest clinical presentations of this disease. The differential diagnosis with tuberculosis should be made in patients presenting with cavitated lesions in upper lung segments. We report the case of a female patient with chronic cavitary pulmonary histoplasmosis who had presented with progressive dyspnea and worsening of the radiological pattern over a four-year period.Keywords: Histoplasmosis; Cavitation; Pulmonary emphysema. ResumoA histoplasmose é uma micose sistêmica causada pelo fungo dimórfico térmico Histoplasma capsulatum, que pode ser isolado a partir de solo contaminado com excrementos de aves e morcegos. Dentre as apresentações clínicas dessa doença, a histoplasmose pulmonar cavitária crônica (HPCC) é uma manifestação rara. O diagnóstico diferencial com tuberculose deve ser realizado em pacientes que apresentam lesões cavitadas nos segmentos pulmonares superiores. É relatado um caso de uma paciente com HPCC que apresentou dispneia progressiva e piora do padrão radiológico em quatro anos de evolução da doença.

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