Background Despite the large body of research on sex differences in pain, there is a lack of knowledge about the influence of gender in the patient-provider encounter. The purpose of this study was to review literature on gendered norms about men and women with pain and gender bias in the treatment of pain. The second aim was to analyze the results guided by the theoretical concepts of hegemonic masculinity and andronormativity. Methods A literature search of databases was conducted. A total of 77 articles met the inclusion criteria. The included articles were analyzed qualitatively, with an integrative approach. Results The included studies demonstrated a variety of gendered norms about men's and women's experience and expression of pain, their identity, lifestyle, and coping style. Gender bias in pain treatment was identified, as part of the patient-provider encounter and the professional's treatment decisions. It was discussed how gendered norms are consolidated by hegemonic masculinity and andronormativity. Conclusions Awareness about gendered norms is important, both in research and clinical practice, in order to counteract gender bias in health care and to support health-care professionals in providing more equitable care that is more capable to meet the need of all patients, men and women.

The lived experiences of coeliac disease were more varied and profound than expected. It is important to take psychological and social aspects into account in the treatment of patients with coeliac disease.

We have reviewed sick-leave measures previously used in the literature and suggested five basic measures for assessing sick-leave.

Two different approaches to health literacy became visible, one in which health literacy is expressed as a polarized phenomenon, focusing on the extremes of low and high health literacy. The definitions of health literacy in this approach are characterized by a functional understanding, pointing out certain basic skills needed to understand health information. The other approach represents a complex understanding of health literacy, acknowledging a broadness of skills in interaction with the social and cultural contexts, which means that an individual's health literacy may fluctuate from one day to another according to the context. The complex approach stresses the interactive and critical skills needed to use information or knowledge as a basis for appropriate health decisions. We conclude that health literacy is a heterogeneous phenomenon that has significance for both the individual and society. Future research will aim at the development of assessments that capture the broadness of skills and agents characteristic for health literacy as a complex phenomenon.

Across three cohorts, additionally stratified by gender, the S-GSE comprised one single latent factor and showed high internal consistency. However, since S-GSE was more strongly related to self-assessments of mental work capacity than physical work capacity regardless of sick-leave status, the S-GSE may not be a strong predictor of beliefs about physical work capacity across all populations.

There is limited scientific evidence that women have a higher frequency and incidence of sickness absence due to psychiatric diagnoses. Because of conflicting findings, there is insufficient evidence on gender differences in the duration of sickness absence. Because of conflicting findings, there is also insufficient evidence on the association between age and sickness absence with psychiatric diagnoses. There is insufficient evidence on the association of sickness absence due to psychiatric diagnoses with work-related factors, factors related to family and social networks outside of the job, and psychosocial factors in childhood and adolescence since none of the individual factors were investigated in more than a single study. The results were conflicting (insufficient evidence) in five studies that investigated whether individuals with psychiatric disorders were at greater risk for sickness absence and disability pension, irrespective of the diagnosis on the sickness certificate. The four studies that used alcohol diagnoses to identify alcohol problems found increased sickness absence irrespective of the diagnosis on the certificate (expressed as more sick-leave days or an increased risk for prolonged sickness absence in individuals with alcohol problems). Furthermore, two of the studies found an increased risk for disability pension in women diagnosed with alcohol problems. There is insufficient evidence because of too few studies. The results are conflicting with regard to the association between high alcohol consumption and sickness absence, irrespective of the diagnosis on the certificate (insufficient evidence).

No abstract

This cohort of young persons proved to be a high-risk group for disability pension. Some of the factors known to predict long-time sickness absence also predict disability pension in a cohort of already sick-listed persons.