The aim of this large cross-sectional population-based study was to examine the association between migraine, non-migrainous headache and headache frequency with depression, and anxiety disorders. From 1995 to 1997, all 92 566 inhabitants aged 20 years and above in Nord-Trøndelag County in Norway were invited to participate in the Nord-Trøndelag Health Study ('Helseundersøkelsen i Nord-Trøndelag' = HUNT-2). A total of 64 560 participated, whereof 51 383 subjects (80%) completed a headache questionnaire that was included. Of these 51 383 individuals, 47 257 (92%) completed the depression subscale items and 43 478 (85%), the anxiety subscale items of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Associations were assessed in multivariate analyses, estimating prevalence odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Depression and anxiety disorders as measured by HADS, were significantly associated with migraine (OR = 2.7, 95% CI 2.3-3.2; OR = 3.2, 95% CI 2.8-3.6) and non-migrainous headache (OR = 2.2, 95% CI 2.0-2.5; OR = 2.7, 95% CI 2.4-3.0) when compared with headache-free individuals. The association was stronger for anxiety disorders than for depression. The ORs for depression and anxiety disorders amongst both migraine and non-migrainous sufferers increased with increasing headache frequency. Depression and anxiety disorders are associated with both migraine and non-migrainous headache, and this association seems more dependent on headache frequency than diagnostic category.

The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of headache and primary headache disorders like migraine and tension-type headaches among adolescents, and to explore the differences in headache prevalence and frequency by gender and age. This cross-sectional study was conducted in Nord-Trøndelag county, Norway, during the years 1995-97. In total, 8984 (88%) out of 10 202 invited adolescents aged 12-19 years participated in the youth part of the Nord-Trøndelag Health Study [Helseundersøkelsen i Nord-Trøndelag (HUNT)]. The total study population in this study consisted of 8255 individuals after exclusion of invalid questionnaires and students outside the target range of 13-18 years of age. The students completed a comprehensive questionnaire, and one of the questions was whether the students had experienced any headaches during the last 12 months. In addition, 5847 of these students were also subject to an interview in which they were asked whether they had experienced recurring headaches during the last year and, if so, were they classified as migraine (MI), tension-type headache (TTH) or non-classifiable headache. In the total questionnaire-based population, 76.8% reported having had headaches during the last 12 months (69.4% boys and 84.2% girls). Among those who also were interviewed, 29.1% reported having recurrent headaches (21.0% boys and 36.5% girls). The overall 1-year prevalence of migraine was 7%, of tension-type headache 18%, and of non-classifiable headache 4.8%. Higher prevalence rates were found for girls in all age groups and for all headache categories. The overall frequency of recurrent headaches did not vary significantly with age, but girls had significantly more frequent headaches than boys. We concluded that headache in general, and recurrent primary headache disorders like migraine and tension-type headaches, are common somatic complaints among Norwegian adolescents, especially among girls.

The results from the present study show that overweight, smoking, or low physical activity are independently and in combination associated with recurrent headache among adolescents. The associations observed and the additive effect of these negative lifestyle factors on the prevalence of recurrent headache indicates possible targets for preventive measures.

Overuse of analgesics strongly predicts chronic pain and chronic pain associated with analgesic overuse 11 years later, especially among those with chronic migraine.

Survivor characteristics that can be assessed in the early aftermath of a terrorist attack strongly predict the subsequent mental health problems of exposed youths. The highly elevated symptoms observed were largely attributable to the traumatic experience and reflect the mental health costs of the terrorist attack.

Chronic headache associated with analgesic overuse is prevalent and especially chronic migraine is more strongly associated with frequent intake of analgesics than other common pain conditions like chronic neck and chronic low-back pain.

Factors on both levels can contribute to reduced grades. This stresses the need to investigate individual and contextual factors simultaneously when examining academic achievement. Our results indicated that students attending schools with higher levels of bullying may show poorer school performance. This was true for all students regardless of previous exposure to violence and sexual abuse. This emphasizes the need for preventive efforts that focus not only on vulnerable groups, but on all students and the school context.

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