BackgroundTsetse flies are vectors of African trypanosomes, protozoan parasites that cause sleeping sickness (or human African trypanosomosis) in humans and nagana (or animal African trypanosomosis) in livestock. In addition to trypanosomes, four symbiotic bacteria Wigglesworthia glossinidia, Sodalis glossinidius, Wolbachia, Spiroplasma and one pathogen, the salivary gland hypertrophy virus (SGHV), have been reported in different tsetse species. We evaluated the prevalence and coinfection dynamics between Wolbachia, trypanosomes, and SGHV in four tsetse species (Glossina palpalis gambiensis, G. tachinoides, G. morsitans submorsitans, and G. medicorum) that were collected between 2008 and 2015 from 46 geographical locations in West Africa, i.e. Burkina Faso, Mali, Ghana, Guinea, and Senegal.ResultsThe results indicated an overall low prevalence of SGHV and Wolbachia and a high prevalence of trypanosomes in the sampled wild tsetse populations. The prevalence of all three infections varied among tsetse species and sample origin. The highest trypanosome prevalence was found in Glossina tachinoides (61.1%) from Ghana and in Glossina palpalis gambiensis (43.7%) from Senegal. The trypanosome prevalence in the four species from Burkina Faso was lower, i.e. 39.6% in Glossina medicorum, 18.08%; in Glossina morsitans submorsitans, 16.8%; in Glossina tachinoides and 10.5% in Glossina palpalis gambiensis. The trypanosome prevalence in Glossina palpalis gambiensis was lowest in Mali (6.9%) and Guinea (2.2%). The prevalence of SGHV and Wolbachia was very low irrespective of location or tsetse species with an average of 1.7% for SGHV and 1.0% for Wolbachia. In some cases, mixed infections with different trypanosome species were detected. The highest prevalence of coinfection was Trypanosoma vivax and other Trypanosoma species (9.5%) followed by coinfection of T. congolense with other trypanosomes (7.5%). The prevalence of coinfection of T. vivax and T. congolense was (1.0%) and no mixed infection of trypanosomes, SGHV and Wolbachia was detected.ConclusionThe results indicated a high rate of trypanosome infection in tsetse wild populations in West African countries but lower infection rate of both Wolbachia and SGHV. Double or triple mixed trypanosome infections were found. In addition, mixed trypanosome and SGHV infections existed however no mixed infections of trypanosome and/or SGHV with Wolbachia were found.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s12866-018-1287-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The sterile insect technique (SIT) is an environment friendly and sustainable method to manage insect pests of economic importance through successive releases of sterile irradiated males of the targeted species to a defined area. A mating of a sterile male with a virgin wild female will result in no offspring, and ultimately lead to the suppression or eradication of the targeted population. Tsetse flies, vectors of African Trypanosoma, have a highly regulated and defined microbial fauna composed of three bacterial symbionts that may have a role to play in the establishment of Trypanosoma infections in the flies and hence, may influence the vectorial competence of the released sterile males. Sodalis bacteria seem to interact with Trypanosoma infection in tsetse flies. Field-caught tsetse flies of ten different taxa and from 15 countries were screened using PCR to detect the presence of Sodalis and Trypanosoma species and analyse their interaction. The results indicate that the prevalence of Sodalis and Trypanosoma varied with country and tsetse species. Trypanosome prevalence was higher in east, central and southern African countries than in west African countries. Tsetse fly infection rates with Trypanosoma vivax and T. brucei sspp were higher in west African countries, whereas tsetse infection with T. congolense and T. simiae, T. simiae (tsavo) and T. godfreyi were higher in east, central and south African countries. Sodalis prevalence was high in Glossina morsitans morsitans and G. pallidipes but absent in G. tachinoides. Double and triple infections with Trypanosoma taxa and coinfection of Sodalis and Trypanosoma were rarely observed but it occurs in some taxa and locations. A significant Chi square value (< 0.05) seems to suggest that Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection correlate in G. palpalis gambiensis, G. pallidipes and G. medicorum. Trypanosoma infection seemed significantly associated with an increased density of Sodalis in wild G. m. morsitans and G. pallidipes flies, however, there was no significant impact of Sodalis infection on trypanosome density.

BackgroundTsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) are solely responsible for the transmission of African trypanosomes, causative agents of sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in livestock. Due to the lack of efficient vaccines and the emergence of drug resistance, vector control approaches such as the sterile insect technique (SIT), remain the most effective way to control disease. SIT is a species-specific approach and therefore requires accurate identification of natural pest populations at the species level. However, the presence of morphologically similar species (species complexes and sub-species) in tsetse flies challenges the successful implementation of SIT-based population control.ResultsIn this study, we evaluate different molecular tools that can be applied for the delimitation of different Glossina species using tsetse samples derived from laboratory colonies, natural populations and museum specimens. The use of mitochondrial markers, nuclear markers (including internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) and different microsatellites), and bacterial symbiotic markers (Wolbachia infection status) in combination with relatively inexpensive techniques such as PCR, agarose gel electrophoresis, and to some extent sequencing provided a rapid, cost effective, and accurate identification of several tsetse species.ConclusionsThe effectiveness of SIT benefits from the fine resolution of species limits in nature. The present study supports the quick identification of large samples using simple and cost effective universalized protocols, which can be easily applied by countries/laboratories with limited resources and expertise.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s12866-018-1295-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Tsetse flies are cyclical vectors of trypanosomes, the causative agents of sleeping sickness or Human African Trypanosomosis and nagana or African Animal Trypanosomosis in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Insectarium de Bobo-Dioulasso (IBD) was created and equipped in the frame of Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC) with the main goal to provide sterile males for the different eradication programs in West Africa which is already the case with the ongoing eradication program in Senegal. The aim of this study was to identify the best feeding regime in mass-rearing colonies of Glossina palpalis gambiensis to optimize the yield of sterile males. We investigated the mortality and fecundity for various feeding regimes and day alternation (3×: Monday-Wednesday-Friday, 4×: Monday-Wednesday-Friday-Saturday, 4×: Monday-Wednesday-Thursday-Friday and 6×: all days except Sunday) on adult tsetse flies in routine rearing over 60 days after emergence. The day alternation in the 4 blood meals per week (feeding regimes 2 and 3) had no effect on tsetse fly mortality and fecundity. The best feeding regime was the regime of 4 blood meals per week which resulted in higher significant fecundity (PPIF = 2.5; P = 0.003) combined with lower mortality of females (P = 0.0003) than the 3 blood meals per week (PPIF = 2.0) and in similar fecundity (PPIF = 2.6; P = 0.70) and mortality (P = 0.51) than the 6 blood meals per week. This feeding regime was extended to the whole colonies, resulting in an improved yield of sterile males for the ongoing eradication program in Senegal and would be more cost-effective for the implementation of the next-coming sterile insect technique (SIT) programs in West Africa.

Tsetse flies, the vectors of African Trypanosoma, have a highly regulated and defined microbial fauna composed of three bacterial symbionts that may have a role to play in the establishment of Trypanosoma infections in the flies and hence, may influence the vectorial competence of the released sterile males. Sodalis bacteria seem to interact with Trypanosoma infection in tsetse flies. Field-caught tsetse flies of ten different taxa and from 15 countries were screened using PCR to detect the presence of Sodalis and Trypanosoma species and their interaction. The results indicate that the prevalence of Sodalis and Trypanosoma varied with country and tsetse species. Trypanosome prevalence was higher in east, central and southern African countries than in west African countries. Tsetse fly infection rates with Trypanosoma vivax and Trypanozoon spp were higher in west African countries, whereas tsetse infection with Trypanosoma congolense and T. simiae, T. simiae (tsavo) and T. godfreyi infection prevalence were higher in east, central and south African countries. Sodalis prevalence was high in Glossina morsitans morsitans and G. pallidipes but absent in Glossina tachinoides. Double and triple infections with Trypanosoma taxa and coinfection of Sodalis and Trypanosoma were rarely observed but it occurs in some taxa and locations. A significant Chi square value (< 0.05) seems to suggest that Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection correlate in Glossina palpalis gambiensis, Glossina pallidipes and Glossina medicorum. Trypanosoma infection significantly increased the density of Sodalis in wild G. m. morsitans and G. pallidipes flies however no significant impact of Sodalis infection on trypanosome density.