SummaryTertiary lymphoid organs (TLOs) emerge during nonresolving peripheral inflammation, but their impact on disease progression remains unknown. We have found in aged Apoe−/− mice that artery TLOs (ATLOs) controlled highly territorialized aorta T cell responses. ATLOs promoted T cell recruitment, primed CD4+ T cells, generated CD4+, CD8+, T regulatory (Treg) effector and central memory cells, converted naive CD4+ T cells into induced Treg cells, and presented antigen by an unusual set of dendritic cells and B cells. Meanwhile, vascular smooth muscle cell lymphotoxin β receptors (VSMC-LTβRs) protected against atherosclerosis by maintaining structure, cellularity, and size of ATLOs though VSMC-LTβRs did not affect secondary lymphoid organs: Atherosclerosis was markedly exacerbated in Apoe−/−Ltbr−/− and to a similar extent in aged Apoe−/−Ltbrfl/flTagln-cre mice. These data support the conclusion that the immune system employs ATLOs to organize aorta T cell homeostasis during aging and that VSMC-LTβRs participate in atherosclerosis protection via ATLOs.

Objective-Clinical studies have identified that reduced numbers of circulating plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) act as a predictor of cardiovascular events in coronary artery disease and that pDCs are detectable in the shoulder region of human atherosclerotic plaques, where rupture is most likely to occur. Results from animal models are controversial, with pDCs seen to inhibit or promote lesion development depending on the experimental settings. Here, we investigated the role of pDCs in atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E−deficient mice. Methods and Results-We demonstrated that the aorta and spleen of both apolipoprotein E−deficient and C57BL/6 mice displayed similar numbers of pDCs, with similar activation status. In contrast, assessment of antigen uptake/presentation using the Eα/Y-Ae system revealed that aortic pDCs in apolipoprotein E−deficient -mice were capable of presenting in vivo systemically administered antigen. Continuous treatment of apolipoprotein E−deficient mice with anti−mouse plasmacytoid dendritic cell antigen 1 (mPDCA-1) antibody caused specific depletion of pDCs in the aorta and spleen and significantly reduced atherosclerosis formation in the aortic sinus (by 46%; P<0.001). Depletion of pDCs also reduced macrophages (by 34%; P<0.05) and increased collagen content (by 41%; P<0.05) in aortic plaques, implying a more stable plaque phenotype. Additionally, pDC depletion reduced splenic T-cell activation and inhibited interleukin-12, chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1, monokine induced by interferon-γ, interferon γ−induced protein 10, and vascular endothelium growth factor serum levels. Conclusion-These

Data from basic science experiments is overwhelmingly supportive of the causal role of immune‐inflammatory response(s) at the core of atherosclerosis, and therefore, the theoretical potential to manipulate the inflammatory response to prevent cardiovascular events. However, extrapolation to humans requires care and we still lack definitive evidence to show that interfering in immune‐inflammatory processes may safely lessen clinical atherosclerosis. In this review, we discuss key therapeutic targets in the treatment of vascular inflammation, placing basic research in a wider clinical perspective, as well as identifying outstanding questions.Linked ArticlesThis article is part of a themed section on Targeting Inflammation to Reduce Cardiovascular Disease Risk. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v174.22/issuetoc and http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bcp.v82.4/issuetoc

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T he pathogenesis of postangioplasty restenosis involves migration and proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), which constitute a major component of postangioplasty neointimal lesions.1-4 VSMC migration and proliferation are regulated by growth factors, adhesion molecules, proteases, and intracellular proteins. Among them, the cadherin-β-catenin complex and its cognate intracellular pathway have been increasingly appreciated as important regulators of these processes. 5-8Matrix metalloproteinase-8 (MMP8) was once thought to be produced exclusively by polymorphonuclear leukocytes, but more recent studies have shown that various other cell types including stem/progenitor cells express this protease.9 Compared with some other members of the MMP family, MMP8 has been less investigated for its proteolytic substrates and biological roles. Herman et al 10 were the first to reveal that VSMCs, endothelial cells, and macrophages in atherosclerotic plaques express MMP8. Subsequently other investigators showed a correlation between increased MMP8 expression and rapid atherosclerotic lesion progression.11,12 A causal role of MMP8 in atherosclerosis development was demonstrated by our recent study, which showed that in apolipoprotein E (apoE)-deficient mice fed a Western diet for 12 weeks, MMP8 knockout resulted in a significant reduction of atherosclerotic lesions with decreased macrophage and VSMC contents. 13 The study also revealed a role of MMP8 in vascular recruitment of leukocytes, 13 providing a mechanistic explanation for the effect of MMP8 knockout on macrophage content in atherosclerotic lesions.In the present study, we sought to investigate whether MMP8 also plays a role in neointima formation after vessel © 2013 American Heart Association, Inc. Objective-We investigated the role of matrix metalloproteinase-8 (MMP8) in neointima formation and in vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) migration and proliferation. Approach and Results-After carotid artery wire injuring, MMP8-/-/apoE -/-mice had fewer proliferating cells in neointimal lesions and smaller lesion sizes. Ex vivo assays comparing VSMCs isolated from MMP8 knockout and wild-type mice showed that MMP8 knockout decreased proliferation and migration. Proteomics analysis revealed that a disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain-containing protein 10 (ADAM10) had lower concentrations in MMP8 knockout VSMC culture media than in MMP8 wild-type VSMC culture media. Western blot, flow cytometric, and immunocytochemical analyses showed that MMP8 knockout VSMCs contained more pro-ADAM10 but less mature ADAM10, more N-cadherin, and β-catenin in the plasma membrane but less β-catenin in the nucleus and less cyclin D1. Treatment of MMP8 wildtype VSMCs with an ADAM10 inhibitor, GI254023X, or siRNA knockdown of ADAM10 in MMP8 wild-type VSMCs inhibited proliferation and migration, increased N-cadherin and β-catenin in the plasma membrane, reduced β-catenin in the nucleus, and decreased cyclin D1 expression. Incubation of MMP8 knockout VSMCs with a recombinant ADAM...

Background-Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) bridge innate and adaptive immune responses and are importantregulators of immuno-inflammatory diseases. However, their role in atherosclerosis remains elusive. Methods and Results-Here, we used genetic approaches to investigate the role of pDCs in atherosclerosis. Selective pDC deficiency in vivo was achieved using CD11c-Cre × Tcf4 -/flox bone marrow transplanted into Ldlr -/-mice. Compared with control Ldlr -/-chimeric mice, CD11c-Cre × Tcf4 -/flox mice had reduced atherosclerosis levels. To begin to understand the mechanisms by which pDCs regulate atherosclerosis, we studied chimeric Ldlr -/-mice with selective MHCII deficiency on pDCs. Significantly, these mice also developed reduced atherosclerosis compared with controls without reductions in pDC numbers or changes in conventional DCs. MHCII-deficient pDCs showed defective stimulation of apolipoprotein B100-specific CD4 + T cells in response to native low-density lipoprotein, whereas production of interferon-α was not affected. Finally, the atheroprotective effect of selective MHCII deficiency in pDCs was associated with significant reductions of proatherogenic T cell-derived interferon-γ and lesional T cell infiltration, and was abrogated in CD4 + T cell-depleted animals. Conclusions-This

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Macrophages play crucial roles in atherosclerotic immune responses. Recent investigation into macrophage autophagy (AP) in atherosclerosis has demonstrated a novel pathway through which these cells contribute to vascular inflammation. AP is a cellular catabolic process involving the delivery of cytoplasmic contents to the lysosomal machinery for ultimate degradation and recycling. Basal levels of macrophage AP play an essential role in atheroprotection during early atherosclerosis. However, AP becomes dysfunctional in the more advanced stages of the pathology and its deficiency promotes vascular inflammation, oxidative stress, and plaque necrosis. In this paper, we will discuss the role of macrophages and AP in atherosclerosis and the emerging evidence demonstrating the contribution of macrophage AP to vascular pathology. Finally, we will discuss how AP could be targeted for therapeutic utility.