The conservation of large carnivores is a formidable challenge for biodiversity conservation. Using a data set on the past and current status of brown bears (Ursus arctos), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), gray wolves (Canis lupus), and wolverines (Gulo gulo) in European countries, we show that roughly one-third of mainland Europe hosts at least one large carnivore species, with stable or increasing abundance in most cases in 21st-century records. The reasons for this overall conservation success include protective legislation, supportive public opinion, and a variety of practices making coexistence between large carnivores and people possible. The European situation reveals that large carnivores and people can share the same landscape.

Wolves (Canis lupus) are currently showing a remarkable comeback in the highly fragmented cultural landscapes of Germany. We here show that wolf numbers increased exponentially between 2000 and 2015 with an annual increase of about 36%. We demonstrate that the first territories in each newly colonized region were established over long distances from the nearest known reproducing pack on active military training areas (MTAs). We show that MTAs, rather than protected areas, served as stepping‐stones for the recolonization of Germany facilitating subsequent spreading of wolf territories in the surrounding landscape. We did not find any significant difference between MTAs and protected areas with regard to habitat. One possible reason for the importance of MTAs may be their lower anthropogenic mortality rates compared to protected and other areas. To our knowledge, this is the first documented case where MTAs facilitate the recolonization of an endangered species across large areas.

22Understanding how exposure and information affect public attitudes towards returning large 23 carnivores in Europe is critical for human-carnivore coexistence, especially for developing 24 efficient and de-escalating communication strategies. The ongoing recolonization of wolves 25 (Canis lupus) in Germany provides a unique opportunity to test the role of different 26 information sources and trust on people's attitudes towards wolves. We conducted a phone 27 survey (n=1250) and compared country-wide attitudes towards wolves with attitudes in a 28 specific region where wolves initially recolonized and have been present since 2000. In 29 particular, we investigate the relationship between information sources, trust and people's 30 attitudes while accounting for factors like knowledge, exposure and socio-cultural 31 determinants of respondents. We found significant differences in attitudes and knowledge 32 about wolves as well as in the use and frequency of information sources between the two 33 population samples. Higher knowledge, information from books and films, science-based 34 information, and higher trust in information sources related positively with positive attitudes 35 towards wolves. Comparatively, information from press or TV news was associated with 36 more negative attitudes. Providing science-based information to the public and building trust 37 in information is likely to be one measure, among others, to dampen extreme attitudes and 38 improve people's appreciation of costs and benefits of human-carnivore coexistence. 39Management of conflictual situations emerging from large carnivore recolonization in Europe 40 and beyond should consider incorporating assessments of people's use of and trust in 41 information in addition to existing tools to pave new ways for constructive human-carnivore 42 coexistence. 43

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a b s t r a c tDue to the fact that the feeding habits of large carnivores are the main contentious point when they start resettling regions they were absent from for several decades, the diet composition of the wolves in Germany was analysed from the beginning of this process. Wolves in Germany primarily feed on wild ungulates, which make up more than 96% of their diet. The dominating prey species is the roe deer (55.3%), followed by red deer (20.8%) and wild boar (17.7%). The second important food category are the leporids (2.9% of Biomass), whereas livestock makes up only 0.6% of all biomass consumed. Wolves clearly prefer hunting on juvenile to adult red deer; roe deer are not selected after their age. We found seasonal differences in the diet composition with a higher amount of wild boar in spring and winter, when a high amount of juveniles and weakened animals, respectively, are available. In the first years of the study the percentage of red deer was much higher, and the percentage of roe deer therefore was lower than the following years. The amount of wild boar in the wolf diet fluctuated most in the first three years. Diet composition remained constant during the last five years. Wolves needed less than two generations for adapting to the new conditions in the cultivated landscape of eastern Germany.