Two studies examined teacher cognitive processes concerning personal control in the classroom. The extent to which teachers perceived classroom control and expected successful outcomes with high-and low-ability students were contrasted within five different hypothetical classroom contexts. The resultsindicate that high-ability students are perceived as more controllable than lowability students; teacher-initiated interactions are perceived as providing more control than student-initiated interactions; the setting has effects on perceived control of interaction duration; and interactions with high-ability students are seen as more likely to lead to successful outcomes than interactions with lowability students.
PROBLEMConflict is an everpresent aspect of interpersonal relationships and, with few exceptions(I', is construed as having negative connotations. For this reason, the manifestations of conflict often are disguised and generally subtle and difficult to measure. The measurement of interpersonal conflict has unique importance because of (a) the need to clarify the meaning of this concept, (b) possible relationships to other group processes and outcomes, and (c) implications for group viability under conditions of prolonged isolation and confinement, such as interplanetary space flight.Because the expression of conflict is so varied-ranging from a disapproving glance or a subtly disparaging remark t o strong verbal disapproval, noncooperation, threats, or even physical violence-certain expressions of conflict may go unnoticed within any group. There is need for study of a variety of indices of group conflict, and preferably these indices should be unobtrusive and capable of measuring the less extreme aspects of interpersonal dissatisfaction. A major objective of this paper is to evaluate the relevance of certain unobtrusive measures of group behavior for assessment of group conflict. METHODThis study is concerned with groups of volunteers who had spent approximately 8 months in isolation in the Antarctic. This situation represents a compromise between the highly controlled laboratory experiment and the largely uncontrolled field study in that many of the environmental conditions were known and relatively stable, yet groups were formed naturally and faced real activities and stresses. Furthermore, this setting was especially well suited to the longitudinal study of interpersonal relationships, because for approximately 8 months the groups were completely isolated from the outside world except for intermittent radio contact. There was no possibility of leaving the group situation.Six small Antarctic stations were involved in the present study; the stations were operated jointly by the National Science Foundation and the U. S. Navy during the years 1964-69. The mission of these 23 "wintering-over" parties was to gather scientific data in a variety of disciplines, principally meteorology and upper-atmospheric physics. Scientists and civilian technicians represented about 40% of the sample, and the military specialists, including construction and maintenance technicians, medical personnel, and cooks, supported the scientific programs. The mean and standard deviation of age for all station members were 26 years and 6 years, respectively. Principal station characteristics were (a) group size ranged from 8 to 30 men, (b) except for 1 year four stations were occupied each year, (c) groups were composed of a wide variety of occupational specialties, and (d) activities were restricted greatly during the Antarctic winter because of darkness and severe climatic conditions. Prior to the deployment to the Antarctic, all applicants participated in a psychiatric assessment program that provided biological data, clinical evaluations,...
EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT 1973, 33, 267-284. CLUSTERING of psychological variables is well-established in the psychometric literature (Cronbach and Gleser, 1953;Johnson, 1967;Pugh, Erickson, Rubin, Gunderson, and Rahe, 1971). Cluster analysis is a convenient method for reducing a large number of variables to a manageable number of salient dimensions or types. In other words, if a researcher with a large pool of variables wishes to know if certain subsets are internally homogeneous or uniquely different from other subsets, cluster analysis is indicated. There are several methods of clustering including some methods which exclude unique variables. A choice was made to use the method described by McQuitty and Clark (1968) who reported that contrary to most pattern-analytic methods their relatively new intercolumnar correlational method uses all indices of association.Essentially, this method of cluster analysis separates an original pool of variables into two subsets, each component being more highly correlated with the others in that subset than with
333needs control but is unable to exercise it (without program modifications) is at the predictor-criterion variable interface. That is, the researcher wants to create groups which are maximally related to treatment and/or outcome criteria. REFERENCES 1. ASH, P. The reliability of psychiatric diagnosis. PROBLEM I n a recent study of selection for Antarctic service, the relative predictability of three occupational groups on five performance measures utilizing a variety of predictor sources was evaluated.(') This type of analysis was designed to aid in the identification of types of information which could contribute to prediction of adjustment a t small, extremely isolated Antarctic stations. One of the predictor sources utilized in this preliminary study was a set of attitude and personality self-description items similar t o those included in the present investigation. The present study includes a much more extensive sampling of attitude and personality items, much larger subject samples, and a more detailed analysis of predictorcriterion-group relationships than has been possible heretofore. PROCEDURESSs were 231 Navy personnel and 158 civilian scientists and technicians who participated in the United States Antarctic Research Program during the period 1963-1968. All were male. The mean age of Navy and scientist groups was approximately the same (27 years) ; 59% of the Navy men had completed high school while 66a/, of the scientist group were college graduates.Kavy men furnished construction, maintenance, and technical support a t each of the bases. Civilian scientists conducted research programs, mostly in the atmospheric and earth sciences, sponsored by the National Science Foundation.An attitude inventory, the Opinion Survey, was administered to all Ss as part of routine psychiatric screening several months before deployment to Antarctica. The 152 items utilized for analysis were those that were common to the inventory over most of the 6 years of the study. Responsvs were given on a *
Male and female subjects provided ratings of personality traits for students pictured in a large set of facial photographs. Each photograph was rated on each of eight traits. Trait ratings were also provided for subjects' impressions of "typical" male and female college students. Male and female subjects did not differ in their ratings of photographs or of typical students. Sex of the picture (and of the typical student) did reliably influence the ratings for several traits. Certain groups of traits appeared to form intercorrelated clusters, suggesting the operation of a halo effect.
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