A Monte Carlo code that performs detailed (i.e. event-by-event) simulation of the transport and energy loss of low-energy electrons (approximately 50-10 000 eV) in water in the liquid phase is presented. The inelastic model for energy loss is based on a semi-empirical dielectric-response function for the valence-shells of the liquid whereas an exchange corrected semi-classical formula was used for K-shell ionization. Following a methodology widely used for the vapour phase, we succeeded in parametrizing the dielectric cross-sections of the liquid in accordance with the Bethe asymptote, thus providing a unified approach for both phases of water and greatly facilitating the computations. Born-corrections at lower energies have been implemented in terms of a second-order perturbation term with a simple Coulomb-field correction and the use of a Mott-type exchange modification. Angular deflections were determined by empirical schemes established from vapour data. Electron tracks generated by the code were used to calculate energy- and interaction-point-kernel distributions at low electron energies in liquid water. The effect of various model assumptions (e.g., dispersion, Born-corrections, phase) on both the single-collision and slowing-down distributions is examined.

Monte Carlo track structure codes provide valuable information for understanding radiation effects down to the DNA level, where experimental measurements are most difficult or unavailable. It is well recognized that the performance of such codes, especially at low energies and/or subcellular level, critically depends on the reliability of the interaction cross sections that are used as input in the simulation. For biological media such as liquid water, one of the most challenging issues is the role of condensed-phase effects. For inelastic scattering, such effects can be conveniently accounted for through the complex dielectric response function of the media. However, for this function to be useful it must fulfill some important sum rules and have a simple analytic form for arbitrary energy- and momentum-transfer. The Emfietzoglou-Cucinotta-Nikjoo (ECN) model offers a practical, self-consistent and fully analytic parameterization of the dielectric function of liquid water based on the best available experimental data. An important feature of the ECN model is that it includes, in a phenomenological manner, exchange and correlation effects among the screening electrons, thus, going beyond the random-phase approximation implicit in earlier models. In this work, inelastic cross sections beyond the plane wave Born approximation are calculated for low-energy electrons (10 eV-10 keV) based on the ECN model, and used for Monte Carlo track structure simulations of physical quantities relevant to the microdosimetry of low-energy electrons in liquid water. Important new developments in the physics of inelastic scattering are discussed and their effect on electron track structure is investigated by a comparison against simulations (under otherwise identical conditions) using the Born approximation and a simpler form of the dielectric function based on the Oak Ridge National Laboratory model. The results reveal that both the dielectric function and the corrections to the Born approximation may have a sizeable effect on track structure calculations at the nanometer scale (DNA level), where the details of inelastic scattering and the role of low-energy electrons are most critical.

An event-by-event Monte Carlo simulation code for track structure studies is described. In the present form the code transports protons (approximately 0.3-10 MeV) and electrons (approximately 10 eV-10 keV) in a water medium in the gas phase approximation. For the type of particles and energy range considered, ionization, electronic excitation and electron elastic scattering are the most important collision events accounted for in the transport simulation. Efforts were made to ensure that the analytic representation of the various interaction cross sections rests on well established experimental data and theory. For example, the secondary-electron spectrum as well as partial and total ionization cross sections are represented by a semitheoretical formulation combining Bethe's asymptotic expansion and binary-encounter theory. Binding effects for five levels of ionization and eight levels of electronic excitation of the water molecule are explicitly considered. The validity of the model cross sections is examined against available experimental data and theoretical predictions from other similar studies. Results pertaining to the partitioning of energy loss and interaction events for the first-collision probability and nanometre-size track segments are presented.

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A computer code simulating the interaction-by-interaction discrete slowing down process of heavy charged particles (i.e. protons, α-particles, and bare heavier ions of z < 10) of speeds greater than about 0.3-1 MeV amu −1 in water medium is presented. Along with the primary particle, the transport of all secondary (and subsequent generations) electrons is explicitly followed down to the minimum electronic excitation potential of a water molecule. Monte Carlo sampling techniques were applied to accurate probability distribution functions characterizing the particle-molecule interaction. The entire secondary electron energy spectrum has been modelled by a semi-empirical approximation combining the leading term of Bethe's asymptotic cross section with an appropriate binary collision formula. The elastic scattering cross section was modelled by a modified Rutherford formula that accounts for screening, while impact excitation was modelled by an empirical formula which exhibits the correct (Born-Bethe) asymptotic behaviour. Binding effects for the most important molecular transitions are explicitly accounted for by partial inelastic cross sections. By following the histories of all particles, the code scores the spatial coordinates of all elastic and inelastic collision events, as well as the partitioning of energy loss to the various inelastic channels.

A new Monte-Carlo code for event-by-event simulation of the transport of energetic non-relativistic protons (approximately 0.5-10 MeV) and all their secondary electrons (down to 1 Ry) in both the vapour and liquid phases of water is presented. A unified particle-water inelastic model for both phases of water has been developed based on experimental optical data and elements of the Bethe theory. The model applies to both electrons and heavy-charged particles and is particularly suitable for extension to other media of biological relevance (organic polymers, DNA, etc.). Condensed-phase effects are included in the liquid version (MC4L) by means of the dielectric functions which, essentially, substitute the oscillator-strength used in the vapour version (MC4V). The results in the form of radial dose distributions and spatially restricted linear energy transfer are presented and compared with the literature.

MS patients experience elevated symptoms of psychological distress, especially depressive symptoms, which are most closely associated with disease parameters. However, the crucial role of various personality traits such as ego defenses and hostility features in the psychiatric symptom formation also appear to contribute to the development of depressive symptoms. Clinicians involved in the clinical management of patients with MS should identify and modify treatment if these specific personality markers that indicate the exhaustion of the patient's resources to cope with the physical and psychological stress of the illness are present.

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