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Bioimpedance standards are well established for the normal healthy population and in clinical settings, but they are not available for many sports categories. The aim of this study was to develop reference values for male and female athletes using classic bioimpedance vector analysis (BIVA). In this study, 1556 athletes engaged in different sports were evaluated during their off-season period. A tetrapolar bioelectrical impedance analyzer was used to determine measurements of resistance (R) and reactance (Xc). The classic BIVA procedure, which corrects bioelectrical values for body height, was applied, and fat-free mass, fat mass, and total body water were estimated. In order to verify the need for specific references, classic bioelectrical values were compared to the reference values for the general male and female populations. Additionally, athletes were divided into three groups: endurance, velocity/power, and team sports. In comparison with the general healthy male and female populations, the mean vectors of the athletes showed a shift to the left on the R–Xc graph. Considering the same set of modalities, BIVA confidence graphs showed that male and female endurance athletes presented lower body fluids, fat mass, and fat-free mass than other sets of modalities. This study provides BIVA reference values for an athletic population that can be used as a standard for assessing body composition in male and female athletes.

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The objective of this study was to verify the impact of various sports on body cell mass (BCM). Ninety-eight male subjects, 17-33 years of age, participated in the study. The sample included athletes from three professional Italian football (soccer) teams, representing three different divisions (A, n=16; B, n=14; and C, n=18), judo athletes (J, n=10), and water polo athletes (W, n=14) who all competed at the national level. Twenty-six age-matched individuals served as the control group (CG). Fat-free mass (FFM), fat mass (FM), percent body fat (%BF), and BCM were assessed using bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS). There were no significant differences in body weight and FFM among the groups. A and B were significantly taller than J and CG. B had a significantly lower body mass index (BMI; kg/m(2)) than CG, while C had a significantly lower BMI than J and CG. CG had a significantly greater FM and %BF than A, B, and C. C had a significantly lower BCM than Aand B. CG had a significantly lower BCM than A, B, J, and W. In conclusion, differences in BCM exist among athletes of different sports, and among athletes within the same sport who compete at different levels.

The purpose of this study was to examine game demands during highly competitive men's water-polo games after the introduction of the new Federation International Natation Association (FINA) rules. Participants of this study were 77 outfield international level men's water-polo players (age 25.9 ± 4.5 years, height 188 ± 4.5 cm, body mass 93 ± 10.9 kg). Game earlobe blood lactate, speed, and distance covered (semiautomatic image recognition system) were measured during 6 highly competitive matches (FINA International Tournament). In the game, players covered 1,613 ± 150 m (n = 68). This corresponds to a mean coverage rate of 54 ± 5.8 m·min (n = 68). At speeds faster than 1.4 m·s⁻¹ (high-intensity swimming), players covered 44% of the total distance. A significant decrease in coverage rate was detected during the final stage of the game. Mean blood-lactate concentration was 7.7 ± 1.0 mmol·L⁻¹ (range 2.2-14.3). Center Defenders (1,816 ± 496 m) covered significantly (p < 0.05) more distance swimming compared to Field (1,676 ± 348 m) and Center-Forward (1,317 ± 281 m) players. Mean match blood-lactate concentrations for Center Forwards, Center Defenders, and Field Players were 11.2 ± 1.0 (3-14.3), 6.7 ± 0.9 (1.4-8), and 5.3 ± 0.9 mmol·L⁻¹ (2.2-11.9), respectively. This study confirmed the high-intensity nature of male elite level water polo showing remarkable role-dependent game demands. As a result, strength and conditioning interventions should be individualized and mainly address intermittent high-intensity endurance and anaerobic fitness.

Fencing is a sport practiced by both men and women, which uses 3 weapons: foil, épée, and saber. In general, there are few scientific studies available in international literature; they are limited to the performance analysis of fencing bouts, yet there is nothing about saber. There are 2 kinds of competitions in the World Cup for both men and women: the "FIE GP" and "A." The aim of this study was to carry out a saber performance analysis to gain useful indicators for the definition of a performance model. In addition, it is expected to verify if it could be influenced by the type of competition and if there are differences between men and women. Sixty bouts: 33 FIE GP and 27 "A" competitions (35 men's and 25 women's saber bouts) were analyzed. The results indicated that most actions are offensive (55% for men and 49% for women); the central area of the piste is mostly used (72% for men and 67% for women); the effective fighting time is 13.6% for men and 17.1% for women, and the ratio between the action and break times is 1:6.5 for men and 1:5.1 for women. A lunge is carried out every 23.9 seconds by men and every 20 seconds by women, and a direction change is carried out every 65.3 seconds by men and every 59.7 seconds by women. The data confirm the differences between the saber and the other 2 weapons. There is no significant difference between the data of the 2 different kinds of competitions.

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