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This article discusses measuring learning strategies by means of questionnaires. In 'multi-method' research, in which think-aloud measures are compared with questionnaires, low or moderate correlations are found. A conclusion often drawn is that learners are not able to verbally report on their learning activities. Alternative explanations concern two other possibilities: first, that different learning strategies may be measured by the two methods; second, that the measuring methods may be aimed at different learning tasks. Keeping these prerequisites in mind, we constructed a task-specific questionnaire directly based on a taxonomy for coding think-aloud protocols in text studying. We found a higher correlation (r=.51) between the questionnaire and think-aloud protocols than is regularly reported. A case-study, in which four students answered the questionnaire while thinking aloud, led to new insights into why a questionnaire may lead to somewhat different ratings of activities than the think-aloud method. Based on these results, task-specific questionnaires may be improved. Our studies involved a fair comparison between a questionnaire and think-aloud protocols. We cautiously conclude that if task-specific questionnaires are meticulously constructed and examined in new ways, they might become reasonably adequate alternatives for the labor-intensive think-aloud method in measuring learners' learning strategies.Keywords Learning strategy questionnaires . Think-aloud method IntroductionThe ongoing focus on metacognition and learning strategies in general is resulting in various measuring methods and instruments (Veenman et al. 2006). Both in educational practice and in research different kinds of measuring methods are used to record learning strategies. Obviously, different instruments may lead to differences in data and conclusions. This article will principally address the use of questionnaires in measuring learning Metacognition Learning (2011) strategies. First, we will present some distinctions in learning strategies and in measuring methods. We consider the possibilities in task-specific measuring, then we concentrate on to the discussion about validity issues concerning questionnaires by presenting multi-method studies in which questionnaires are compared with other instruments. Finally, we discuss our empirical studies in constructing a task-specific learning strategy questionnaire. Different learning strategiesDefinitions of learning strategies vary. Different terms (e.g., methods, techniques, or skills) are used to describe the activities that are considered to constitute a learning strategy. Learning strategies may be defined as certain combinations of goal-oriented learning activities used by learners to improve learning (cf. Van Hout-Wolters 1992;Rachal et al. 2007). A learner can use all kinds of strategies to improve learning. These can be found in a multitude of divisions and overviews of learning strategies (see e.g., Alexander 2006;Pintrich 2004;Weinstein and Hume 1998;Winne and Hadwin...

(2013). Assessing metacognitive activities: the in-depth comparison of a task-specific questionnaire with think-aloud protocols. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(3), 963-990. DOI: 10.1007/s10212-012-0149-y General rightsCopyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights.• Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research.• You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policyIf you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Abstract Teaching and assessing metacognitive activities are important educational objectives, and teachers are calling for efficient instruments. The advantages of questionnaires in measuring metacognitive activities are obvious, but serious validity issues appear. For example, correlations of questionnaire data with think-aloud measures are generally moderate to low. An explanation may be that these questionnaires are not constructed in line with the metacognitive activities measured by the think-aloud method. In the present study, a questionnaire is constructed based directly on a taxonomy for coding think-aloud protocols. Twenty ninth-graders studied a text while thinking aloud, after which they immediately received the questionnaire. The overall correlation between the questionnaire and the thinkaloud protocols (r00.63) was promising. However, scale and item analyses clearly demonstrate some new validity issues. Comparing the questionnaire and the think-aloud results, the students seem to report overt metacognitive activities corresponding more with their behavior reported in the protocols than covert ones. In-depth explorations are presented. Eur J Psychol Educ (2013) Metacognition is a powerful determinant in learning results (Hattie 2009;Veenman and Alexander 2011). Recognition of the important role of metacognition is paralleled by the construction of various assessment methods and instruments ). However, different instruments or methods may be aimed at assessing different facets in metacognitive learning, and it is important to evaluate disparate measures in relation to metacognitive theory (Muis et al. 2007). Furthermore, many researchers are involved in an 'online versus offline' measuring debate (cf. Dinsmore et al. 2008; Schellings and Van HoutWolters 2011;Veenman and Alexander 2011;Winne and Perry 2000). Researchers are discussing the preference of measuring metacognitive activities during the learner's learning (online) or apart from it (offline, which is when the learner is not learning). While ...

This study reports on how student teachers learn in the workplace. Data from 10 student teachers were collected by means of digital logs and in-depth interviews. By reconstructing data into stories and unravelling these stories, it became clear that the learning process of each student teacher was dominated by one specific theme, such as student-centred teaching or creating a positive learning climate. These themes could be typified as professional identity themes, because all appeared to be both personal and professional. Five student teachers experienced their workplace learning process as continuous: they integrated their teaching experiences relatively easily into their personal conceptual framework. The other five experienced their workplace learning process as discontinuous: they experienced tensions caused by frictions between personal and professional aspects of becoming a teacher. Both types of learning can stimulate and hinder student teachers' professional development. The findings indicate that reconstructing data into stories and unravelling these stories is a useful technique for understanding student teacher workplace learning as a result of the interaction between personal and professional aspects of becoming a teacher.