High resolution x-ray diffraction data from crystals of the Rhodobacter sphaeroides photosynthetic reaction center (RC) have been collected at cryogenic temperature in the dark and under illumination, and the structures were refined at 2.2 and 2.6 angstrom resolution, respectively. In the charge-separated D+QAQB- state (where D is the primary electron donor (a bacteriochlorophyll dimer), and QA and QB are the primary and secondary quinone acceptors, respectively), QB- is located approximately 5 angstroms from the QB position in the charge-neutral (DQAQB) state, and has undergone a 180 degrees propeller twist around the isoprene chain. A model based on the difference between the two structures is proposed to explain the observed kinetics of electron transfer from QA-QB to QAQB- and the relative binding affinities of the different ubiquinone species in the QB pocket. In addition, several water channels (putative proton pathways) leading from the QB pocket to the surface of the RC were delineated, one of which leads directly to the membrane surface.

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The three-dimensional structure of the cofactors of the reaction center of Rhodobacter sphaeroides R-26 has been determined by x-ray diffraction and refined at a resolution of 2.8 A with an R value of 26%. The main features of the structure are similar to the ones determined for Rhodopseudomonas viridis [Michel, H., Epp, 0. & Deisenhofer, J. (1986) EMBO J. 5, 2445EMBO J. 5, -2451. The cofactors are arranged along two branches, which are approximately related to each other by a 2-fold symmetry axis. The structure is well suited to produce light-induced charge separation across the membrane. Most of the structural features predicted from physical and biochemical measurements are confirmed by the x-ray structure.The reaction center (RC) is an integral membrane proteinpigment complex that mediates the primary processes of photosynthesis-i.e., the light-induced electron transfers from a donor to a series of acceptor species. The three-dimensional structure of the RC from the photosynthetic bacterium Rhodopseudomonas viridis has recently been determined by x-ray diffraction at a resolution of 2.9 A (1-3). In this paper, we report the structure analysis of the RC from another purple bacterium, the carotenoidless mutant R-26 of Rhodobacter sphaeroides (previously called Rhodopseudomonas sphaeroides). The motivation for undertaking the structure determination of the RC of a second bacterial species was 2-fold. (i) The RC from Rb. sphaeroides has been investigated for the past two decades and, consequently, is the best characterized RC (for reviews see refs. 4 and 5); in addition, the methodologies for manipulating its structure (e.g., exchanging cofactors, dissociating and reassociating the subunits) have been worked out in detail (4-10). (ii) The availability of structures from two organisms may help in elucidating structure-function relationships by correlating differences in structure with differences in function.The RC from Rb. sphaeroides is composed of three protein subunits-L, M, and H-and the following cofactors: four bacteriochlorophylls (Bchls), two bacteriopheophytins (Bphes), two ubiquinones, and one nonheme iron. The RC from R. viridis has an additional subunit, a cytochrome with four c-type hemes; its Bchls and Bphes are of the "b" type instead of the "a" type found in Rb. sphaeroides, and its primary quinone is a menaquinone. Notwithstanding these differences, the two structures were found to be very similar. This made it possible to use the method of molecular replacement (11) to solve the phase problem in the x-ray analysis (12)(13)(14). The crystals of Rb. sphaeroides diffract at least to a resolution of 2.6 A and retain the ability to perform the primary photochemistry (15). We have solved the structure of the protein and the cofactors to a resolution of 2.8 A with an R factor of 26%. In this paper, we report the structure of the cofactors. The structure of the protein, the relation of the RC protein to the membrane, and the interaction of the cofactors with the protein will be reported in ...

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The bacterial reaction center couples light-induced electron transfer to proton pumping across the membrane by reactions of a quinone molecule Q(B) that binds two electrons and two protons at the active site. This article reviews recent experimental work on the mechanism of the proton-coupled electron transfer and the pathways for proton transfer to the Q(B) site. The mechanism of the first electron transfer, k((1))(AB), Q(-)(A)Q(B)-->Q(A)Q(-)(B), was shown to be rate limited by conformational gating. The mechanism of the second electron transfer, k((2))(AB), was shown to involve rapid reversible proton transfer to the semiquinone followed by rate-limiting electron transfer, H(+)+Q(-)(A)Q(-)(B) ifQ(-)(A)Q(B)H-->Q(A)(Q(B)H)(-). The pathways for transfer of the first and second protons were elucidated by high-resolution X-ray crystallography as well as kinetic studies showing changes in the rate of proton transfer due to site directed mutations and metal ion binding.

We have compared the electron-transfer kinetics in reaction centers (RCs) cooled in the dark with those cooled under illumination (i.e., in the charge-separated state). Large differences between the two cases were observed. We interpreted these findings in terms of light-induced structural changes. The kinetics of charge recombination D+QA-----DQA in RCs containing one quinone were modeled in terms of a distribution of donor-acceptor electron-transfer distances. For RCs cooled under illumination the distribution broadened and shifted to larger distances compared to the distribution for RCs cooled in the dark. The model accounts for the nonexponential decay observed at low temperatures [McElroy, J. D., Mauzerall, D. C., & Feher, G. (1974) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 333, 261-277; Morrison, L.E., & Loach, P.A. (1978) Photochem. Photobiol. 27, 751-757]. A possible physiological role of the structural changes is an enhanced charge stabilization. For RCs with two quinones, the recombination kinetics D+QAQB-----DQAQB were found to be strongly temperature dependent. This was interpreted in terms of temperature-dependent transitions between structural states [Agmon, N., & Hopfield, J.J. (1983) J. Chem. Phys. 78, 6947-6959]. This interpretation requires that these transitions occur at cryogenic temperatures on a time scale t greater than or approximately 10(3) s. The electron transfer from QA- to QB was found to not take place in RCs cooled in the dark (tau ABdark greater than 10(-1) s). In RCs cooled under illumination, we found tau ABlight less than 10(-3) s. We suggest the possibility that the drastic decrease in tau AB observed in RCs cooled under illumination is due to the trapping of a proton near QB-.

We used Monte Carlo methods to treat the statistical problem of electrostatic interactions among many titrating amino acids and applied these methods to lysozyme and the photosynthetic reaction center of Rhodobacter sphaeroides, including all titrating sites. We computed the average protonation of residues as a function of pH from an equilibrium distribution of states generated by random sampling. Electrostatic energies were calculated from a finite difference solution to the linearized Poisson-Boltzmann equation using the coordinates from solved protein structures. For most calculations we used the Metropolis algorithm to sample protonation states; for strongly coupled sites, we substantially reduced sampling errors by using a modifIed algorithm that allows multiple site transitions. The Monte Carlo method agreed with calculations for a small test system, lysozyme, for which the complete partition function was calculated. We also calculated the pH dependence of the free energy change associated with electron transfer from the primary to the secondary quinone in the photosynthetic reaction center. The shape of the resulting curve agreed fairly well with experiment, but the proton uptake from which the free energy was calculated agreed only to within a factor of two with the observed values. We believe that this discrepancy resulted from errors in the individual electrostatic energy calculations rather than from errors in the Monte Carlo sampling.Electrostatic interactions in proteins are important for protein structure and function. The largest contribution to the electrostatic potential within a protein arises from protonatable amino acids that can carry a net charge. The problem of determining the average charges on protonatable residues can be separated into two parts. (i) The energies of protonation of the individual amino acids and the interaction energies between pairs of charged residues must be calculated. Much progress along these lines has been made (1-4). (ii) The average protonation of each residue must be determined from the electrostatic energies. Since the protonation of a site depends on the protonation of all other sites (in a typical protein there may be hundreds of titrating sites), an exact statistical calculation becomes too time consuming for more than -25 titrating residues. In this paper we present a Monte Carlo method to solve the statistical problem of finding the protonation of many interacting protonatable residues.Previous methods used to solve this problem can handle only a small number of sites or are inaccurate. Exact values of average protonations calculated from a partition function work well when the number of sites is below -25, and the reduced-site approximation can treat twice as many sites for some systems (5). The Tanford-Roxby approximation (6) ignores fluctuations in the protonation of residues and has been shown to be inaccurate for strongly interacting titrating residues (5).We used a Monte Carlo technique for determining the protonation of many interacting sit...

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