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Human presence in natural environments is often a source of stress that is perceived by large ungulates as an increased risk of predation. Alternatively, disturbance induced by hikers creates a relatively predator‐free space that may serve as a refuge. We measured the behavioral responses of female caribou to disturbance associated with the presence of hikers during summer in the Gaspésie National Park. We used those data to determine whether caribou responded negatively to human activity (i.e., the predation risk hypothesis) or whether human activity resulted in a decrease in the magnitude of perceived risk (i.e., the refuge hypothesis). Female caribou with a calf spent nearly half of their time feeding, regardless of the presence of a trail or the number of hikers. They also decreased their vigilance near trails when the number of hikers increased. Conversely, lone females fed less frequently and almost doubled the time invested in vigilance under the same circumstances. However, both groups of females moved away from trails during the day, especially in the presence of hikers. We demonstrated that risk avoidance was specific to the maternal state of the individual. Lactating females accommodated the presence of hikers to increase time spent foraging and nutritional intake, providing support for the refuge hypothesis. Alternatively, lone females with lower energetic requirements and no maternal investment in a vulnerable calf appeared less tolerant to risk, consistent with the predation risk hypothesis. Synthesis and applications: Hikers influenced the vigilance–feeding trade‐off in caribou, underlining the importance of appropriate management of linear structures and human activities, especially across the critical habitat of endangered species. Even if some individuals seemed to benefit from human presence, this behavioral adaptation was not sufficient to reduce annual calf mortality associated with predation.

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Inter‐individual variability in behavior has been studied extensively for a wide range of species. However, few researchers have considered marginality, defined as the degree to which a choice made by an individual is located at the margins of the distribution of all possible choices available to a particular population. We explored the influence of marginal behaviors on the probability of survival of woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou). We used GPS collars to record the movement and fate of 43 caribou and distributed their habitat use behavior along two axes of a multidimensional scaling. We used Cox proportional‐hazards models to evaluate whether marginality had an effect on mortality risk. We found that individuals that exhibited marginal behavior had higher mortality risk than more conformist individuals. Caribou is a social species; thus, sharing a common habitat use strategy is likely an adaptation for minimizing the risk of predation. Our findings provide an empirical link between behavior and survival, contributing to our understanding of the decline of Rangifer across much of its Canadian distribution.

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Depuis 2006, le gouvernement québécois a entrepris l’élargissement de la route 175 entre Québec et Saguenay, afin de la faire passer de 2 à 4 voies sur près de 200 km en territoire forestier. Notre objectif était d’évaluer les impacts de l’augmentation de l’activité humaine induite par ce chantier sur le comportement des loups. Depuis 2005, nous avons suivi 22 individus par télémétrie GPS de part et d’autre de la route 175. Nos résultats montrent, entre autres, que les loups ont exercé une sélection pour les secteurs à forte densité de chemins forestiers. Nous avons également observé un évitement des zones où l’activité humaine était plus élevée en raison des chantiers de construction, principalement durant la période où les loups vivaient près de leur tanière. Durant la période de fréquentation de la tanière, les loups ont traversé moins souvent la route après le début des travaux d’élargissement, mais cette réponse négative du loup ne s’est pas poursuivie par la suite. Nos résultats suggèrent que l’activité humaine semble être un des principaux facteurs influençant le comportement des loups à l’approche d’une route