The representation of the atmospheric boundary layer is an important part of weather and climate models and impacts many applications such as air quality and wind energy. Over the years, the performance in modeling 2-m temperature and 10-m wind speed has improved but errors are still significant. This is in particular the case under clear skies and low wind speed conditions at night as well as during winter in stably stratified conditions over land and ice. In this paper, the authors review these issues and provide an overview of the current understanding and model performance. Results from weather forecast and climate models are used to illustrate the state of the art as well as findings and recommendations from three intercomparison studies held within the Global Energy and Water Exchanges (GEWEX) Atmospheric Boundary Layer Study (GABLS). Within GABLS, the focus has been on the examination of the representation of the stable boundary layer and the diurnal cycle over land in clear-sky conditions. For this purpose, single-column versions of weather and climate models have been compared with observations, research models, and large-eddy simulations. The intercomparison cases are based on observations taken in the Arctic, Kansas, and Cabauw in the Netherlands. From these studies, we find that even for the noncloudy boundary layer important parameterization challenges remain.
A climatology of nocturnal low-level jets (LLJs) is presented for the topographically flat measurement site at Cabauw, the Netherlands. LLJ characteristics are derived from a 7-yr half-hourly database of wind speed profiles, obtained from the 200-m mast and a wind profiler. Many LLJs at Cabauw originate from an inertial oscillation, which develops after sunset in a layer decoupled from the surface by stable stratification. The data are classified to different types of stable boundary layers by using the geostrophic wind speed and the isothermal net radiative cooling as classification parameters. For each of these classes, LLJ characteristics like frequency of occurrence, height above ground level, and the turning of the wind vector across the boundary layer are determined. It is found that LLJs occur in about 20% of the nights, are typically situated at 140-260 m above ground level, and have a speed of 6-10 m s 21 . Development of a substantial LLJ is most likely to occur for moderate geostrophic forcing and a high radiative cooling. A comparison with the 40-yr ECMWF Re-Analysis (ERA-40) is added to illustrate how the results can be used to evaluate the performance of atmospheric models.
Intercepted rainfall may be evaporated during or after the rain event. Intercepted rain is generally determined as the difference between rainfall measurements outside and inside the forest. Such measurements are often used to discriminate between water storage and evaporation during rain as well. Two well-accepted methods underestimate water storage by a factor two as compared to direct observations. The underestimation of storage is compensated by an overestimation of evaporation during rain by a factor of three. The direct observations of water storage and evaporation appear to agree with previous direct observations. Thus, it is concluded that these observations are representative. Also, our results based on methods using only rainfall measurements inside and outside the forest appear to agree with previous results. This would result in the conclusion that the common methods systematically underestimate water storage and overestimate evaporation during rain. Indeed, the systematic errors can be explained by the neglect of drainage before saturation. Water storage is better simulated assuming an exponential saturation of a larger storage capacity. A smaller evaporation can be simulated using an appropriate resistance to vapour transport. The observations in dense coniferous forest showed water storage to be the dominant process in rainfall interception, but this conclusion should not be generalized to other forests and climates. Direct observations of water storage and evaporation are recommended to build a realistic set of parameters for rainfall interception studies of the main vegetation types. ᭧
Understanding the relationships between climate and carbon exchange by terrestrial ecosystems is critical to predict future levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide because of the potential accelerating effects of positive climate-carbon cycle feedbacks. However, directly observed relationships between climate and terrestrial CO 2 exchange with the atmosphere across biomes and continents are lacking. Here we present data describing the relationships between net ecosystem exchange of carbon (NEE) and climate factors as measured using the eddy covariance method at 125 unique sites in various ecosystems over six continents with a total of 559 site-years. We find that NEE observed at eddy covariance sites is (1) a strong function of mean annual temperature at mid-and high-latitudes, (2) a strong function of dryness at mid-and low-latitudes, and (3) a function of both temperature and dryness around the mid-latitudinal belt (45 • N). The sensitivity of NEE to mean annual temperature breaks down at ∼16 • C (a threshold value of mean annual temperature), above which no further increase of CO 2 uptake with temperature was observed and dryness influence overrules temperature influence.
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