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Instead of the heuristic randomization methods to design split questionnaires that are currently used in applied and academic research, we develop a methodology to design the split questionnaire to minimize information loss using estimates from a first wave or pilot study. Because the number of possible questionnaire designs is exponential in the number of questions, we apply the Modified Federov algorithm, using Kullback Leibler Distance as a design criterion, to find the optimal splits. We use Markov chain Monte Carlo procedures to impute missing values that result from the design. First of all, we illustrate the efficiency of the Modified Federov Algorithm on a small synthetic questionnaire, which enables the enumeration of all possible designs for comparison. Second, we compare the efficiency of split questionnaires generated with the proposed method to multiple matrix sampling, incomplete block designs, and a heuristic procedure based on principal components analysis, using synthetic and empirical Web survey data. We generate split questionnaire designs selecting either entire blocks of questions (between-block design) or sets of questions in each block (within-block design). Finally, we illustrate that due to reduced respondent burden the quality of data using split designs increases, compared to a full questionnaire in a field study.

Although several studies focused on understanding of compulsive buying in developed countries, this phenomenon remains understudied in other parts of the world. This is rather surprising since there is an increasing interest in understanding shopping behavior of consumers in emergent markets due to the growing importance of these markets. The main reason for the limited attention to compulsive buying in emerging countries is the lack of cross-culturally validated scales. In response to these calls, this paper tests measurement invariance of two prominent compulsive buying scales – the Compulsive Buying Scale (CBS) and the Compulsive Buying Index (CBI) in Western (Spain and the Netherlands) and emerging (Russia and Turkey) economies. In case of lack of invariance the reasons in terms of socio-cultural factors and country conditions are explained. The results establish the partial measurement invariance of the CBI but not the CBS. So, to study the antecedents and consequences of compulsive buying in cross-cultural contexts, the CBI is sufficient. The varying credit card ownership and usage, and different gender roles of women across countries appear to be the main reasons for lack of measurement invariance of the CBS. The percentages of compulsive buyers in emerging countries are lower than those in developed countries.

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