The aim of this study was to assess the current state of evidence and methodological quality of studies on implicit and explicit motor learning in both typically developing children and children with developmental disorders. A systematic literature review was conducted on the experimental literature published up to April 2020. A total of 25 studies were included. Studies were evaluated on methodological quality, paradigm used, and level of evidence. The results showed that implicit paradigms are as effective as explicit paradigms in both groups of children. Studies are predominantly experimental in nature involving mostly upper limb aiming tasks. The few studies that were performed outside the lab (n = 5) suggest superior efficacy of the implicit paradigm. Methodological quality varied between studies and was not always of sufficient standard to allow conclusions. In particular, manipulation checks were only performed in 13 studies (52% of all studies), limiting conclusions. Further progress can be made by focussing on improving methodological quality through retention testing by the inclusion of a control group, by the inclusion of a manipulation check, and via assessment of relevant co-variables, such as working memory, age, and motor competence.
The aim of the current study was to examine the effects of an external focus of attention (i.e., on the movement outcome) versus an internal focus of attention (i.e., on the movement itself) on motor learning in typically developing children. We examined both immediate motor performance (i.e., practice effect, when focus instructions are given) as well as motor performance after one week (i.e., learning effect). In addition, we examined if an external and an internal focus of attention differently affected movement automatization, as measured using a dual-task paradigm. Finally, we explored whether the effect of attentional focus instructions on motor learning was influenced by children's working memory capacity. Participants were 8-12 year old (N = 162) typically developing children. Participants practiced a new motor task (i.e., 'Slingerball throwing task'). Results showed that an external focus of attention led to higher throwing accuracy during practice, but this beneficial effect did not extent to the retention test one week later. Furthermore, movement automatization did not differ after external or internal focus of attention instructions, and working memory capacity did not predict motor learning in children in either of the instruction conditions. This is the first study to show that the beneficial effects of an external focus of attention on discrete motor tasks found in previous studies with a child population seem to be short lived and decline after a one-week interval.
Children can benefit from instruction with both an internal and external focus of attention to improve short-term motor performance. Individual, task-specific focus preference influenced the effect of the instructions, with children performing better with their preferred focus. The results highlight that individual differences are a key factor in the effectiveness in children's motor performance. The precise mechanisms underpinning this effect warrant further research.
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