Implicit motor learning in primary school children: A systematic review

Abstract

The aim of this study was to assess the current state of evidence and methodological quality of studies on implicit and explicit motor learning in both typically developing children and children with developmental disorders. A systematic literature review was conducted on the experimental literature published up to April 2020. A total of 25 studies were included. Studies were evaluated on methodological quality, paradigm used, and level of evidence. The results showed that implicit paradigms are as effective as explicit paradigms in both groups of children. Studies are predominantly experimental in nature involving mostly upper limb aiming tasks. The few studies that were performed outside the lab (n = 5) suggest superior efficacy of the implicit paradigm. Methodological quality varied between studies and was not always of sufficient standard to allow conclusions. In particular, manipulation checks were only performed in 13 studies (52% of all studies), limiting conclusions. Further progress can be made by focussing on improving methodological quality through retention testing by the inclusion of a control group, by the inclusion of a manipulation check, and via assessment of relevant co-variables, such as working memory, age, and motor competence.

How can instructions and feedback with external focus be shaped to enhance motor learning in children? A systematic review

“…While previous reviews suggest that the effectiveness of EF may be moderated by child and task characteristics, like working memory capacity, motor skill level and type of task (23,32), we hypothesize that the effectiveness of EF may also be moderated by the instructors’ chosen frequency, timing, and form. Therefore, this systematic review investigates the effectiveness of instructions and feedback with EF applied with reduced frequency, in visual or auditory forms, and/or on request of the child (I), compared to instructions and feedback with EF applied with continuous frequency, in verbal form, and/or initiated by the instructor (C), on the performance of functional gross motor tasks (O) in children aged 2 to 18 with typical and atypical development (P).…”

“…Implicit motor learning can be shaped by using an external focus of attention (EF) (23). With an EF, the child’s attention is steered to the impact of the movement on the environment (23). A recent systematic review investigated effectiveness of implicit learning strategies in functional motor skills learning in typically developing children (TDC) (23).…”

“…With an EF, the child’s attention is steered to the impact of the movement on the environment (23). A recent systematic review investigated effectiveness of implicit learning strategies in functional motor skills learning in typically developing children (TDC) (23). They concluded that the use of an EF appeared to be as, or even more, effective than an internal focus of attention (IF), which directs the child’s attention to its body movements (23).…”

“…With implicit motor learning, a child learns without awareness and with no or minimal increase in verbal knowledge (22). It is suggested that children benefit from this type of learning, because there is minimal involvement of the working memory (2,23,24). Implicit motor learning can be shaped by using an external focus of attention (EF) (23).…”

“…It is suggested that children benefit from this type of learning, because there is minimal involvement of the working memory (2,23,24). Implicit motor learning can be shaped by using an external focus of attention (EF) (23). With an EF, the child’s attention is steered to the impact of the movement on the environment (23).…”