Motor learning and movement automatization in typically developing children: The role of instructions with an external or internal focus of attention

Abstract

The aim of the current study was to examine the effects of an external focus of attention (i.e., on the movement outcome) versus an internal focus of attention (i.e., on the movement itself) on motor learning in typically developing children. We examined both immediate motor performance (i.e., practice effect, when focus instructions are given) as well as motor performance after one week (i.e., learning effect). In addition, we examined if an external and an internal focus of attention differently affected movement automatization, as measured using a dual-task paradigm. Finally, we explored whether the effect of attentional focus instructions on motor learning was influenced by children's working memory capacity. Participants were 8-12 year old (N = 162) typically developing children. Participants practiced a new motor task (i.e., 'Slingerball throwing task'). Results showed that an external focus of attention led to higher throwing accuracy during practice, but this beneficial effect did not extent to the retention test one week later. Furthermore, movement automatization did not differ after external or internal focus of attention instructions, and working memory capacity did not predict motor learning in children in either of the instruction conditions. This is the first study to show that the beneficial effects of an external focus of attention on discrete motor tasks found in previous studies with a child population seem to be short lived and decline after a one-week interval.

Motor learning in children with developmental coordination disorder: The role of focus of attention and working memory

“…The current findings add important evidence to the increasing body of literature showing a lack, or an unexpected role of working memory for motor learning of children (Brocken, Kal, & van der Kamp, 2016;Jongbloed-Pereboom, Peeters, Overvelde, Nijihuis-van der Sanden, and Steenbergen (2015); Krajenbrink et al, 2018;van Abswoude, Nuijen et al, 2018;van Abswoude, van der Kamp, & Steenbergen, 2018). For example, in a recent study, van van Abswoude, van der Kamp et al, 2018 found only a small effect of visuospatial working memory capacity on performance during practice of an aiming task in an explicit context.…”

“…Brocken et al (2016) also failed to show a role for working memory capacity on learning with an internal or external focus of attention, although they only investigated verbal working memory. Finally, in the studies of Krajenbrink et al (2018) and van van Abswoude, Nuijen et al (2018) there was also no role of working memory capacity for respectively learning over a one week period, and performance during practice, with internal or external focus instructions.…”

“…More measures that could elucidate if movement automatization differs between groups are needed to draw firm conclusions. For example, by including a dual task to 'stress' working memory capacity (e.g., Krajenbrink et al, 2018) or by measuring brain activity to study which regions are activated during movement production (e.g., Buszard, Farrow, Zhu, & Masters, 2016).…”

“…Also in typically developing children, benefits of an external focus of attention were only found during or immediately after practice (Abdollahipour, Wulf, Psotta, & Nieto, 2015, Krajenbrink et al, 2018 or after a 24 h to 48 h delay (Brocken et al, 2016;Flores, Schild, & Chiviacowsky, 2015;Hadler, Chiviacowsky, Wulf, & Schild, 2014;Thorn, 2006). Moreover, some studies did not find any differences between both attentional foci either during practice or after a short retention (Chow, Koh, Davids, Button, & Rein, 2014;Emanuel, Jarus, & Bart, 2008;Perreault & French, 2016;van Abswoude, Nuijen et al, 2018) or after a longer retention period (Krajenbrink et al, 2018). Thus, the evidence with respect to the proposed beneficial effects of an external focus for motor learning in children is presently inconclusive at best and seems to be short lived.…”

“…The experimental task was similar to the one used by Krajenbrink, van Abswoude, Vermeulen, van Cappellen, & Steenbergen (2018). Children were instructed to hold the ribbon and to swing the 'slingerball' (see Fig.…”