Mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs) are characterized by the presence of light-dependent corals and associated communities that are typically found at depths ranging from 30 to 40 m and extending to over 150 m in tropical and subtropical regions. The dominant communities providing structural habitat in the mesophotic zone can be comprised of coral, sponge, and algal species. Because working in this depth range is constrained by traditional SCUBA limits, less is known about corals and associated organisms there compared to shallower coral communities. Following the first-ever gathering of international scientists to review and discuss existing knowledge of MCEs, this issue focuses on the ecological characterization, geomorphology, and concept of MCEs as refugia for shallow-water populations. The review and research papers comprising this special issue reflect the current scientific understanding of these ecosystems and the underlying mechanisms that regulate them, as well as potential resource management implications. It is important to understand the value and role of mesophotic coral ecosystems in tropical and subtropical regions as these areas face increasing environmental change and human impacts Keywords Mesophotic coral ecosystem Á Biodiversity Á Geomorphology Á Connectivity Á Community structure Á Resource management Mesophotic coral ecosystem workshopOn 12-15 July 2008, a scientific workshop was held in Jupiter, Florida, to identify critical research and resource management needs for mesophotic coral ecosystems

Risk analysis of species invasions links biology and economics, is increasingly mandated by international and national policies, and enables improved management of invasive species. Biological invasions proceed through a series of transition probabilities (i.e., introduction, establishment, spread, and impact), and each of these presents opportunities for management. Recent research advances have improved estimates of probability and associated uncertainty. Improvements have come from species-specific trait-based risk assessments (of estimates of introduction, establishment, spread, and impact probabilities, especially from pathways of commerce in living organisms), spatially explicit dispersal models (introduction and spread, especially from transportation pathways), and species distribution models (establishment, spread, and impact). Results of these forecasting models combined with improved and cheaper surveillance technologies and practices [e.g., environmental DNA (eDNA), drones, citizen science] enable more efficient management by focusing surveillance, prevention, eradication, and control efforts on the highest-risk species and locations. Bioeconomic models account for the interacting dynamics within and between ecological and economic systems, and allow decision makers to better understand the financial consequences of alternative management strategies. In general, recent research advances demonstrate that prevention is the policy with the greatest long-term net benefit. 454 Lodge et al.

Antibiotic residues that may be present in carcasses of medicated livestock could pass to and greatly reduce scavenger wildlife populations. We surveyed residues of the quinolones enrofloxacin and its metabolite ciprofloxacin and other antibiotics (amoxicillin and oxytetracycline) in nestling griffon Gyps fulvus, cinereous Aegypius monachus and Egyptian Neophron percnopterus vultures in central Spain. We found high concentrations of antibiotics in the plasma of many nestling cinereous (57%) and Egyptian (40%) vultures. Enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin were also found in liver samples of all dead cinereous vultures. This is the first report of antibiotic residues in wildlife. We also provide evidence of a direct association between antibiotic residues, primarily quinolones, and severe disease due to bacterial and fungal pathogens. Our results indicate that, by damaging the liver and kidney and through the acquisition and proliferation of pathogens associated with the depletion of lymphoid organs, continuous exposure to antibiotics could increase mortality rates, at least in cinereous vultures. If antibiotics ingested with livestock carrion are clearly implicated in the decline of the vultures in central Spain then it should be considered a primary concern for conservation of their populations.

The optimization of cryopreservation extenders is a fundamental issue for adequately performing germplasm banking on wild species. We have tested two glycerol concentrations (4 and 8%), and three extender osmolalities (320, 380 and 430 mOsm/kg; before adding cryoprotectants), for cryopreservation of epididymal and ejaculated sperm samples from Iberian red deer. All the extenders were based on Tes-Tris and fructose (for osmolality adjustment), and complemented with 20% egg yolk. Epididymal and ejaculated sperm samples were obtained from the cauda epididymis (post-mortem) and using electroejaculation, respectively. Samples were diluted 1:1 with each extender and equilibrated for 2 h at 5 degrees C. Then, they were diluted down to 100x10(6) sperm/mL and frozen at -20 degrees C/min. Post-thawed samples were assessed for motility (CASA), HOS test, proportion of swollen (osmotically challenged) cells in the untreated sample, viability and acrosomal status. For epididymal samples, 8% glycerol rendered a slightly higher proportion of intact acrosomes on viable spermatozoa than 4%; regarding extender osmolality, 380 and 430 mOsm/kg rendered higher motility results, and the 430 mOsm/kg yielded the lowest proportion of swollen spermatozoa. For ejaculated samples, 4% glycerol yielded more viable spermatozoa than 8%; for extender osmolality, 320 mOsm/kg rendered the highest percentages of progressively motile and viable spermatozoa, although 380 mOsm/kg extender was not significantly different. These results show that sample source influences extender suitability, and that extenders should be isoosmotic or rather slightly hyperosmotic. Future studies should test multiple glycerol concentrations and extender osmolalities in order to adjust them to these kinds of sample.

We have carried out a field trial in cattle to study the effect of the interval between the onset of estrus and AI on sex ratio and fertility. Data were obtained from 716 cows that had been inseminated at different times between 8 and 44 h from the visual detection of estrus. Before analyzing the data, it was grouped in three intervals considering the time between estrus onset and AI (8-18, 18-30, and > or = 30 h). Our results show that the percentage of calved females (73.05%) is significantly superior for early inseminations (8-18 h), and it decreases 1.85% per hour from the onset of estrus. Delayed AIs (> or = 30 h) produce a significant deviation of the sex ratio towards the males (72.06%); nevertheless, fertility (percentage of successful pregnancies) diminishes significantly, from 66.19% (8-18 h) to 45.35% (> or = 30 h). In conclusion, variations in the interval between the onset of estrus and AI modify sex ratio. However, we must consider its effect on fertility.

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We tested extenders and freezing protocols for Iberian red deer semen. Samples were obtained by electroejaculation (10 stags), and analyzed for motility (CASA), viability (propidium ioide), acrosomal (PNA-FITC) and mitochondrial status (JC-1). Samples were diluted 1+1 in extender, cooled and adjusted for glycerol (extender with higher glycerol concentration), brought to 160 x 10(6)mL(-1) and frozen. Four experiments were carried out, repeating sperm analysis after thawing to compare treatments. In a first experiment, seven samples were frozen using Triladyl (20% egg yolk) and UL extender (Tes-Tris-fructose, 15% egg yolk, 4% glycerol). Triladyl yielded higher motility after thawing. In a second trial, 17 samples were frozen using Triladyl, Andromed, Bioxcell, and UL with 8% LDL (low-density lipoproteins). Triladyl, and Andromed performed better than Bioxcell on motility, and than UL-LDL on viability and acrosomal status. In a third experiment, the performance of freezing the sperm-rich ejaculate fraction versus the whole ejaculate was tested on nine samples. The sperm-rich ejaculate fraction not only rendered more motile and viable spermatozoa but also showed higher freezability (higher motile spermatozoa recovery). In a fourth experiment, we tried three modifications of the freezing protocol, for improving the freezability of low concentration samples: prior removal of seminal plasma; replacing extender (second fraction) for pure glycerol to reduce dilution; and performing only the 1+1 dilution, not the second dilution. No differences were found, although only three samples could be used. Both Triladyl and Andromed were deemed appropriate for freezing Iberian red deer semen, and the rich fraction should be selected for freezing.

The Cantabrian brown bear (Ursus arctos) is a highly endangered species in Spain and basic studies are necessary in order to bank its germplasm. Sperm heads are mainly made up of chromatin, thus their shape depends partly on chromatin structure. Thawed semen from 10 bears was used to analyze chromatin status by sperm chromatin structure assay (SCSA) and head morphometry by the computer-assisted sperm morphology assessment (CASMA) system. Morphometry was analyzed before and after freezing-thawing in order to evaluate the effects of cryopreservation on sperm heads. Each spermatozoon was measured for four primary parameters (length, L; width, W; area, A; perimeter, P) and derived parameters (ellipticity: L/W, circularity: 4piA/ P2, elongation: (L-W)/(L+W), regularity: piLW/ 4A). All the derived parameters significantly differed between bears. Likewise, cryopreservation affected head morphometry by reducing its size. Clustering based on morphometric parameters separated three subpopulations, one of them being significantly more influenced by the cryopreservation process. We obtained high correlations between head morphometry and SCSA parameters: standard deviation of DNA fragmentation index (SD-DFI) was correlated with perimeter and area (r=0.75 and r=0.62, respectively) and DFIm and DFIt (moderate and total DNA fragmentation index) were correlated with perimeter (r=0.65 and r=0.67, respectively). Nevertheless, classification of males according to SCSA or head morphometry did not completely agree so the two assays might explain male variability differently. We conclude that cryopreservation affected morphometry at least in a subset of spermatozoa. These results might improve future application of sperm banking techniques in this species.