Tissue-plasminogen activator (t-PA) is now available for the treatment of thrombo-embolic stroke but adverse effects have been reported in some patients, particularly hemorrhaging. In contrast, the results of animal studies have indicated that t-PA could increase neuronal damage after focal cerebral ischemia. Here we report for the first time that t-PA potentiates signaling mediated by glutamatergic receptors by modifying the properties of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. When depolarized, cortical neurons release bio-active t-PA that interacts with and cleaves the NR1 subunit of the NMDA receptor. Moreover, the treatment with recombinant t-PA leads to a 37% increase in NMDA-stimulated fura-2 fluorescence, which may reflect an increased NMDA-receptor function. These results were confirmed in vivo by the intrastriatal injection of recombinant-PA, which potentiated the excitotoxic lesions induced by NMDA. These data provide insight into the regulation of NMDA-receptor-mediated signaling and could initiate therapeutic strategies to improve the efficacy of t-PA treatment in man.

Increasing evidence supports the idea of a beneficial effect of cannabinoid compounds for the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS).However, most experimental data come from animal models of MS. We investigated the status of cannabinoid CB 1 and CB 2 receptors and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) enzyme in brain tissue samples obtained from MS patients. Areas of demyelination were identified and classified as active, chronic, and inactive plaques. CB 1 and CB 2 receptors and FAAH densities and cellular sites of expression were examined using immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. In MS samples, cannabinoid CB 1 receptors were expressed by cortical neurons, oligodendrocytes, and also oligodendrocyte precursor cells, demonstrated using double immunofluorescence with antibodies against the CB 1 receptor with antibodies against type 2 microtubule-associated protein, myelin basic protein, and the platelet-derived growth factor receptor-␣, respectively. CB 1 receptors were also present in macrophages and infiltrated T-lymphocytes. Conversely, CB 2 receptors were present in T-lymphocytes, astrocytes, and perivascular and reactive microglia (major histocompatibility complex class-II positive) in MS plaques. Specifically, CB 2 -positive microglial cells were evenly distributed within active plaques but were located in the periphery of chronic active plaques. FAAH expression was restricted to neurons and hypertrophic astrocytes. As seen for other neuroinflammatory conditions, selective glial expression of cannabinoid CB 1 and CB 2 receptors and FAAH enzyme is induced in MS, thus supporting a role for the endocannabinoid system in the pathogenesis and/or evolution of this disease.

The glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is first characterized for its trophic activity on dopaminergic neurons. Recent data suggested that GDNF could modulate the neuronal death induced by ischemia. The purpose of this study was to characterize the influence of GDNF on cultured cortical neurons subjected to two paradigms of injury (necrosis and apoptosis) that have been identified during cerebral ischemia and to determine the molecular mechanisms involved. First, we demonstrated that both neurons and astrocytes express the mRNA and the protein for GDNF and its receptor complex (GFR␣-1 and c-Ret). Next, we showed that the application of recombinant human GDNF to cortical neurons and astrocytes induces the activation of the MAP kinase (MAPK) pathway, as visualized by an increase in the phosphorylated forms of extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs). Thereafter, we demonstrated that GDNF fails to prevent apoptotic neuronal death but selectively attenuates slowly triggered NMDA-induced excitotoxic neuronal death via a direct effect on cortical neurons. To further characterize the neuroprotective mechanisms of GDNF against NMDA-mediated neuronal death, we showed that a pretreatment with GDNF reduces NMDA-induced calcium influx. This effect likely results from a reduction of NMDA receptor activity rather than an enhanced buffering or extrusion capacity for calcium. Finally, we also demonstrated that an ERKs activation pathway is necessary for GDNF-mediated reduction of the NMDA-induced calcium response. Together, these results describe a novel mechanism by which the activation of MAPK induced by GDNF modulates NMDA receptor activity, a mechanism that could be responsible for the neuroprotective effect of GDNF in acute brain injury.

Following injury or infection, the liver releases acute-phase proteins (APP). After a severe focal injury, this systemic response can be excessive and may lead to multiorgan dysfunction (MODS). CINC-1 is a neutrophil chemoattractant, and we have now established that it also functions as an early APP after injury to the brain or to peripheral tissues. After induction of a focal inflammatory lesion in the brain, there is rapid hepatic and serum CINC-1 induction, which is associated with increases in neutrophil numbers within the liver and within the circulation. CINC-1-mediated recruitment of neutrophils to organs distant from the primary injury site may contribute to MODS. Indeed, we found that enzyme markers of liver tissue injury are increased in the serum following generation of a focal inflammatory lesion in the brain. Neutralization of CINC-1 in the periphery reversed brain-injury-induced neutrophil mobilization and inhibited recruitment of neutrophils to the brain and to the liver. Thus, a significant component of the hepatic acute-phase response is the release of chemokines by the liver, which act to amplify the inflammatory response and modulate the subsequent leukocytosis and secondary tissue damage. Hepatic CINC-1 synthesis following injury presents a novel focus for treatment of inflammation.

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The endocannabinoid system exhibits anti-inflammatory properties by regulating cytokine production. Anandamide (AEA) down-regulates proinflammatory cytokines in a viral model of multiple sclerosis (MS). However, little is known about the mechanisms by which AEA exerts these effects. Microglial cells are the main source of cytokines within the brain and the first barrier of defense against pathogens by acting as antigen presenting cells. IL-10 is a key physiological negative regulator of microglial activation. In this study we show that AEA enhances LPS/IFNgamma-induced IL-10 production in microglia by targeting CB(2) receptors through the activation of ERK1/2 and JNK MAPKs. AEA also inhibits NF-kappaB activation by interfering with the phosphorylation of IkappaBalpha, which may result in an increase of IL-10 production. Moreover, endogenously produced IL-10 negatively regulates IL-12 and IL-23 cytokines, which in its turn modify the pattern of expression of transcription factors involved in Th commitment of splenocytes. This suggests that by altering the cytokine network, AEA could indirectly modify the type of immune responses within the central nervous system (CNS). Accordingly, pharmacological modulation of AEA uptake and degradation might be a useful tool for treating neuroinflammatory diseases.

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