This article presents system performance studies for the Discovery MI PET/CT system, a new time-of-flight system based on silicon photomultipliers. System performance and clinical imaging were compared between this next-generation system and other commercially available PET/CT and PET/MR systems, as well as between different reconstruction algorithms. Spatial resolution, sensitivity, noise-equivalent counting rate, scatter fraction, counting rate accuracy, and image quality were characterized with the National Electrical Manufacturers Association NU-2 2012 standards. Energy resolution and coincidence time resolution were measured. Tests were conducted independently on two Discovery MI scanners installed at Stanford University and Uppsala University, and the results were averaged. Back-to-back patient scans were also performed between the Discovery MI, Discovery 690 PET/CT, and SIGNA PET/MR systems. Clinical images were reconstructed using both ordered-subset expectation maximization and Q.Clear (block-sequential regularized expectation maximization with point-spread function modeling) and were examined qualitatively. The averaged full widths at half maximum (FWHMs) of the radial/tangential/axial spatial resolution reconstructed with filtered backprojection at 1, 10, and 20 cm from the system center were, respectively, 4.10/4.19/4.48 mm, 5.47/4.49/6.01 mm, and 7.53/4.90/6.10 mm. The averaged sensitivity was 13.7 cps/kBq at the center of the field of view. The averaged peak noise-equivalent counting rate was 193.4 kcps at 21.9 kBq/mL, with a scatter fraction of 40.6%. The averaged contrast recovery coefficients for the image-quality phantom were 53.7, 64.0, 73.1, 82.7, 86.8, and 90.7 for the 10-, 13-, 17-, 22-, 28-, and 37-mm-diameter spheres, respectively. The average photopeak energy resolution was 9.40% FWHM, and the average coincidence time resolution was 375.4 ps FWHM. Clinical image comparisons between the PET/CT systems demonstrated the high quality of the Discovery MI. Comparisons between the Discovery MI and SIGNA showed a similar spatial resolution and overall imaging performance. Lastly, the results indicated significantly enhanced image quality and contrast-to-noise performance for Q.Clear, compared with ordered-subset expectation maximization. Excellent performance was achieved with the Discovery MI, including 375 ps FWHM coincidence time resolution and sensitivity of 14 cps/kBq. Comparisons between reconstruction algorithms and other multimodal silicon photomultiplier and non-silicon photomultiplier PET detector system designs indicated that performance can be substantially enhanced with this next-generation system.

Peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) is a promising treatment for patients with neuroendocrine tumors, giving rise to improved survival. Dosimetric calculations in relation to PRRT have been concentrated to normal organ dosimetry in order to limit side effects. However, the relation between the absorbed dose to the tumor and treatment response has so far not been established. Better knowledge in this respect may improve the understanding of treatment effects, allow for improved selection of those patients who are expected to benefit from PRRT, and avoid unnecessary treatments. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the dose-response relationship for pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors treated with PRRT using 177 Lu-DOTATATE. Methods: Tumor-absorbed dose calculations were performed for 24 lesions in 24 patients with metastasized pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors treated with repeated cycles of 177 Lu-DOTATATE at 8-wk intervals. The absorbed dose calculations relied on sequential SPECT/CT imaging at 24, 96, and 168 h after infusion of 177 Lu-DOTATATE. The unit density sphere model from OLINDA was used for absorbed dose calculations. The absorbed doses were corrected for partial-volume effect based on phantom measurements. On the basis of these results, only tumors larger than 2.2 cm in diameter at any time during the treatment were included for analysis. To further decrease the effect of partial-volume effect, a subgroup of tumors (.4.0 cm) was analyzed separately. Tumor response was evaluated by CT using Response Evaluation Criteria In Solid Tumors. Results: Tumor-absorbed doses until best response ranged approximately from 10 to 340 Gy. A 2-parameter sigmoid fit was fitted to the data, and a significant correlation between the absorbed dose and tumor reduction was found, with a Pearson correlation coefficient (R 2 ) of 0.64 for tumors larger than 2.2 cm and 0.91 for the subgroup of tumors larger than 4.0 cm. The largest tumor reduction was 57% after a total absorbed dose of 170 Gy. Conclusion: The results imply a significant correlation between absorbed dose and tumor reduction. However, further studies are necessary to address the large variations in response for similar absorbed doses.

The resolution and quantitative accuracy of PET are highly influenced by the reconstruction method. Penalized-likelihood estimation algorithms allow for fully convergent iterative reconstruction, generating a higher image contrast than ordered-subsets expectation maximization (OSEM) while limiting noise. In this study, a type of penalized reconstruction known as block-sequential regularized expectation maximization (BSREM) was compared with time-of-flight OSEM (TOF OSEM). Various strengths of noise penalization factor β were tested along with various acquisition durations and transaxial fields of view (FOVs) with the aim of evaluating the performance and clinical use of BSREM for F-FDG PET/CT, both quantitatively and in a qualitative visual evaluation. Eleven clinical whole-body F-FDG PET/CT examinations acquired on a digital TOF PET/CT scanner were included. The data were reconstructed using BSREM with point-spread function recovery and β-factors of 133, 267, 400, and 533-and using TOF OSEM with point-spread function-for various acquisition times per bed position and various FOVs. Noise level, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), signal-to-background ratio (SBR), and SUV were analyzed. A masked evaluation of visual image quality, rating several aspects, was performed by 2 nuclear medicine physicians to complement the analysis. The lowest levels of noise were reached with the highest β-factor, resulting in the highest SNR, which in turn resulted in the lowest SBR. A β-factor of 400 gave noise equivalent to TOF OSEM but produced a significant increase in SUV (11%), SNR (22%), and SBR (12%). BSREM with a β-factor of 533 at a decreased acquisition duration (2 min/bed position) was comparable to TOF OSEM at a full acquisition duration (3 min/bed position). Reconstructed FOV had an impact on BSREM outcome measures; SNR increased and SBR decreased when FOV was shifted from 70 to 50 cm. The evaluation of visual image quality resulted in similar scores for reconstructions, although a β-factor of 400 obtained the highest mean whereas a β-factor of 267 was ranked best in overall image quality, contrast, sharpness, and tumor detectability. In comparison with TOF OSEM, penalized BSREM reconstruction resulted in an increased tumor SUV and an improved SNR and SBR at a matched level of noise. BSREM allowed for a shorter acquisition than TOF OSEM, with equal image quality.

BackgroundRadionuclide therapy can be individualized by performing dosimetry. To determine absorbed organ doses in 177Lu-DOTATATE therapy, three methods based on activity concentrations are currently in use: the small volume of interest (sVOI) method, and two methods based on large VOIs either on anatomical CT (aVOI) or on thresholds on functional images (tVOI). The main aim of the present work was to validate the sVOI in comparison to the other two methods regarding agreement and time efficiency. Secondary aims were to investigate inter-observer variability for the sVOI and the change of functional organ volumes following therapy.MethodsThirty patients diagnosed with neuroendocrine tumours undergoing therapy with 177Lu-DOTATATE were included. Each patient underwent three SPECT/CT scans at 1, 4 and 7 days after the treatment. Three independent observers calculated absorbed doses to the right and left kidney and the spleen using sVOI and one observer used aVOI. For tVOI, the absorbed doses were calculated based on automatically drawn isocontours around the organs at different thresholds (42, 50, 60 and 70 %). The inter-observer difference between the calculated absorbed doses for sVOI was calculated, and the differences between the three methods were computed. Ratios of organ volumes acquired at days 1, 4 and 7 versus the volume at day 1 were calculated for the tVOI method.ResultsThe differences in results of the absorbed dose calculations using all the sVOI and tVOI were small (<5 %). Absorbed dose calculations using aVOI differed slightly more from these results but were still below 10 %. The differences between the three dose calculation methods varied between <5 and 10 %. The organ volumes derived from the tVOI were independent of time for the spleen while they decreased with time for the kidneys. The fastest analysis was performed with the sVOI method.ConclusionsAll three dose calculation methods rendered comparable results with small inter-observer differences for sVOI. Unlike the spleen, the functional volume of the kidneys decreased over time during therapy, which suggests that the absorbed dose calculation for the kidneys on activity concentrations should be performed for each time point. The sVOI is the preferred method for calculating absorbed doses in solid organs.

Introduction: Peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) has during the last few years been frequently used in patients with progressive, disseminating, well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors (NETs). Objective: To study whether the absorbed dose in small intestinal NET (SI-NET) metastases from PRRT with 177 Lu-DOTATATE is related to tumor shrinkage. Materials and Methods: Dosimetry for 1 tumor was performed in each of 25 SI-NET patients based on sequential SPECT/CT 1, 4, and 7 days after 177 Lu-DOTATATE infusion. The SPECT data were corrected for the partial volume effect based on previous phantom measurements, and the unit density sphere model from OLINDA was used for absorbed dose calculations. Morphological therapy response was assessed by CT/MRI regarding tumor diameter, tumor volume, total liver tumor volume, liver volume, and overall tumor response according to RECIST 1.1. Plasma chromogranin A and urinary 5-hydroxy-indole-acetic-acid were measured during PRRT and follow-up to assess biochemical response. Results: At the time of best response with respect to tumor diameter and volume shrinkage, the median absorbed dose was 128.6 Gy (range 28.4-326.9) and 140 Gy (range 50.9-487.4), respectively. All metrics regarding tumor shrinkage and biochemical response were unrelated to the absorbed dose. A correlation was, however, found between the administered radioactivity and the tumor volume shrinkage (p = 0.01) and between the administered radioactivity and RECIST 1.1 response (p = 0.01). Conclusions: It was not possible to demonstrate a tumor dose-response relationship in SI-NET metastases with the applied dosimetry method, contrary to what was previously shown for pancreatic NETs.

PET/CT with 68 Ga-DOTA-somatostatin analogs has been tested for therapy monitoring in patients with neuroendocrine tumors (NETs). However, SUVs in tumors do not correlate with the net influx rate (K i ), as a representation of the somatostatin receptor expression. In this study, tumor-to-blood ratio (TBR) was evaluated as an alternative tool for semiquantitative assessment of 68 Ga-DOTATOC and 68 Ga-DOTATATE tumor uptake and as a therapy monitoring tool for patients with NETs. Methods: Twenty-two NET patients underwent a 45-min dynamic PET/CT scan after injection of 68 Ga-DOTATOC or 68 Ga-DOTATATE. K i was determined using the Patlak method, and TBR was calculated for the 40-to 45-min interval. Results: A linear relation was found between K i and TBR, with a square of Pearson correlation of 0.98 and 0.93 for 68 Ga-DOTATOC and 68 Ga-DOTATATE, respectively. Conclusion: A high correlation was found between K i and TBR. Hence, TBR reflects somatostatin receptor density more accurately than SUV and is suggested as the preferred metric for semiquantitative assessment of 68 Ga-DOTATOC and 68 Ga-DOTATATE tumor uptake.

Dosimetry during peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) has mainly focused on normal organs and less on the tumors. The absorbed dose in one target tumor per patient and several response related factors were assessed in 23 pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (P-NENs) and 25 small-intestinal NEN (SI-NENs) during PRRT with 177Lu-DOTATATE. The total administered activity per patient was (mean ± standard error of mean (SEM) 31.8 ± 1.9 GBq for P-NENs and 36 ± 1.94 GBq for SI-NENs. The absorbed tumor dose was 143.5 ± 2 Gy in P-NENs, 168.2 ± 2 Gy in SI-NENs. For both NEN types, a dose–response relationship was found between the absorbed dose and tumor shrinkage, which was more pronounced in P-NENs. A significant drop in the absorbed dose per cycle was shown during the course of PRRT. Tumor vascularization was higher in P-NENs than in SI-NENs at baseline but equal post-PRRT. The time to progression (RECIST 1.1) was similar for patients with P-NEN (mean ± SEM 30 ± 1 months) and SI-NEN (33 ± 1 months). In conclusion, a dose response relationship was established for both P-NENs and SI-NENs and a significant drop in the absorbed dose per cycle was shown during the course of PRRT, which warrants further investigation to understand the factors impacting PRRT to improve personalized treatment protocol design.

Peptide receptor radiotherapy using 177 Lu-labeled somatostatin ligand analogs is a well-established treatment for neuroendocrine tumors, with 177 Lu-DOTATATE having acquired marketing authorization in Europe and the United States. The investigation of the pharmacokinetics of these radiopharmaceuticals in vivo in humans is crucial for personalized treatment management and understanding of treatment effects. Such an investigation requires input data on the in vivo stability of the radiopharmaceuticals in blood and plasma. The work presented here is devoted to the investigation of the in vivo stability of 177 Lu-DOTATATE in humans affected by neuroendocrine tumors. Methods: Blood samples of 6 patients undergoing 177 Lu-DOTATATE were taken at 0.5, 4, 24, and 96 h after injection. Analysis of metabolic stability was performed using highperformance liquid chromatography. Results: A fast metabolism of the radiopharmaceutical was observed, with the fraction of intact 177 Lu-DOTATATE in plasma decreasing rapidly to 23% ± 5% (mean ± SD) at 24 h and 1.7% ±0. 9% at 96 h after injection. Conclusion: The in vivo stability of 177 Lu-DOTATATE is much lower than previously assumed, with the major part of radioactivity in plasma consisting of 177 Lu-labeled metabolites already at 24 h after injection.