Octopamine is an endogenous biogenic amine neurotransmitter, neurohormone, and neuromodulator in invertebrates, and has functional analogy with norepinephrine in vertebrates. Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) can detect rapid changes in neurotransmitters, but FSCV has not been optimized for octopamine detection in situ. The goal of this study was to characterize octopamine release in the ventral nerve cord of Drosophila larvae for the first time. An FSCV waveform was optimized so that the potential for octopamine oxidation would not be near the switching potential where interferences can occur. Endogenous octopamine release was stimulated by genetically inserting either the ATP sensitive channel, P2X2, or the red-light sensitive channelrhodopsin, CsChrimson, into cells expressing tyrosine decarboxylase (TDC), an octopamine synthesis enzyme. To ensure that release is due to octopamine and not the precursor tyramine, the octopamine synthesis inhibitor disulfiram was applied, and the signal decreased by 80%. Stimulated release was vesicular and a 2 s continuous light stimulation of CsChrimson evoked 0.22 ± 0.03 μM of octopamine release in the larval VNC. Repeated stimulations were stable with 2 or 5 minutes interstimulation times. With pulsed stimulations, the release was dependent on the frequency of applied light pulse. An octopamine transporter has not been identified, and blockers of the dopamine transporter and serotonin transporter had no significant effect on the clearance time of octopamine, suggesting they do not take up octopamine. This study shows that octopamine can be monitored in Drosophila, facilitating future studies of how octopamine release functions in the insect brain.
BackgroundMedical students at the University of Virginia (UVA) are mentored and learn within the framework of a four college learning community. Uniquely, these learning communities are used to organize the third-year clerkship rotations.MethodsStudents were surveyed after their first pre-clinical year and after their clerkship year to determine what the effect of the learning community was on their social and educational interpersonal relationships.ResultsStudents knew a higher percentage of their college mates after completing their third-year clerkships within the framework of the college system. Students chose peers from within the college system for social and educational interpersonal scenarios statistically more often than what would be expected at random. Small group learning environments that were not formed within the framework of the college system at UVA did not have the same effect on interpersonal relationships, indicating that learning communities are uniquely able to provide a context for relationship building. Students felt more positively about the social and educational effects of the college system after the clerkship year, with a corresponding increase in the strength of their interpersonal bonds with their college peers.ConclusionThis work is the first to investigate the effects of learning communities on interpersonal relationships among medical students and finds that learning communities positively impact both social and educational medical student bonds.
The response to drugs of abuse is a combination of aversive and reinforcing reactions. While much is known about the role of dopamine in mammalian drug reinforcement, we know little about the brain circuits mediating drug aversion. Here we show that two distinct dopaminergic circuits mediate reinforcing and acute aversive responses to alcohol consumption in Drosophila. Protocerebral anterior medial dopamine neurons projecting to the mushroom bodies are required for flies to acquire alcohol preference. Conversely, a bilateral pair of dopamine neurons projecting to the dorsal fan-shaped body (dFSB) mediates acute alcohol avoidance. Alcohol consumption can be reduced by decreasing the activity of the appetitive reinforcement-circuit to the mushroom bodies, or by increasing activity in the dopamine neurons projecting to the dFSB. Thus, distinct dopaminergic pathways can be targeted to reduce the intake of harmful drugs.
Objective: Describe long-term trends and stability of hearing outcomes for patients undergoing primary congenital aural atresia (CAA) repair. Study Design: Retrospective chart review. Setting: Single academic, tertiary referral center. Patients: Children and adults who underwent primary CAA repair between 1980 and 2017. Intervention: CAA repair. Main Outcome Measures: Long-term (> 1 yr) postoperative three-tone (500, 1000, 2000 Hz) air conduction pure-tone average (AC PTA) compared with the immediate (within 90 d of surgery) postoperative audiogram. Results: The mean preoperative AC PTA was 59.6 dB HL. CAA repair improved hearing an average of 30.5 dB, but hearing declined by 8.2 dB over the long-term follow-up period (mean 4.4 yr; range 1–15.7 yr), leaving a final mean improvement of 22.2 dB (final mean AC PTA 37.3 dB HL). Two-thirds (92 of 138 ears) had an AC PTA ≤ 30 dB HL recorded in the first year after surgery. At the last follow-up test, 64% had “stable” hearing defined as no more than a 10 dB decline in AC PTA compared with the immediate postoperative audiogram; 21% had a 10 to 20 dB decline, 8% a 20 to 30 dB decline, and 7% declined > 30 dB. Conclusions: All patients enjoyed improvement in AC PTA after surgery (preoperative minus the best postoperative PTA, mean = 34 dB, range = 3.3–52 dB). Hearing declined by an average 8.2 dB over the long-term leaving a final average AC PTA of 37.4 dB HL. Sixty-four percent of patients exhibited stable (< 10 dB loss) hearing over time; 36% lost 10 dB or more over the long-term follow-up period. Hearing results typically stabilize over time with most of the change occurring in the first 3 years after CAA repair. Bone conduction thresholds remained stable over the study period.
Objectives A paucity of literature exists about childbearing during otolaryngology residency. Pregnancy is a common part of many physician life cycles, but the timing of residency and the rigors of surgical training amplify the challenges. This study was designed to understand the experiences of childbearing otolaryngology residents and support them during this major life event. Unique challenges include long training, shortage of role models, combination surgical and clinical work, and higher rates of infertility. Study Design Qualitative research. IRB exempt. Setting United States. Methods To capture modern perspectives, 16 current and former otolaryngology residents that experienced pregnancy and childbirth during residency in all four geographic regions of the United States in the past 10 years were recruited to participate in individual structured qualitative interviews. Results Although there was significant training program and personal anxiety reported by childbearing otolaryngology residents, many surgeons experienced healthy pregnancies and postpartum recoveries with minimal disruption to clinical productivity and minimal disruption to their training programs. Multiple recurring themes were identified among the participants spanning the entire childbearing process: increased incidence of pregnancy complications and preterm labor, pregnancy stigma from leadership and coresidents, scheduling logistics regarding call and parental leave, and challenging transitions back to clinical work while navigating breastfeeding and childcare. Conclusion There are actional recommendations that programs can address to make childbearing during residency accessible and acceptable. Understanding these challenges is an important step to encouraging childbearing residents to prosper in academic otolaryngology, increasing the diversity at the highest levels of the field. Level of Evidence 4.
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