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Dopamine and serotonin are important neurotransmitters that interact in the brain. While dopamine is easily detected with electrochemical sensors, the detection of serotonin is more difficult because reactive species formed after oxidation can adsorb to the electrode, reducing sensitivity. Carbon nanotube treatments of electrodes have been used to increase the sensitivity, promote electron transfer, and reduce fouling. Most methods have focused on nanotube coatings of large electrodes and slower electrochemical techniques that are not conducive to measurements in vivo. In this study, we investigated carbon-fiber microelectrodes modified with single-walled carbon nanotubes for the co-detection of dopamine and serotonin in vivo. Using fast-scan cyclic voltammetry, S/N ratios for the neurotransmitters increased after nanotube coating. Electrocatalytic effects of nanotubes were not apparent at fast scan rates but faster kinetics were observed with slower scanning. Nanotube-modified microelectrodes showed significantly less fouling after exposure to serotonin than bare electrodes. The nanotube-modified electrodes were used to monitor stimulated dopamine and serotonin changes simultaneously in the striatum of anesthetized rat after administration of a serotonin synthetic precursor. These studies show that nanotube-coated microelectrodes can be used with fast scanning techniques and are advantageous for in vivo measurements of neurotransmitters because of their greater sensitivity and resistance to fouling.

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Carbon nanomaterials are advantageous for electrochemical sensors because they increase the electroactive surface area, enhance electron transfer, and promote adsorption of molecules. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been incorporated into electrochemical sensors for biomolecules and strategies have included the traditional dip coating and drop casting methods, direct growth of CNTs on electrodes and the use of CNT fibers and yarns made exclusively of CNTs. Recent research has also focused on utilizing many new types of carbon nanomaterials beyond CNTs. Forms of graphene are now increasingly popular for sensors including reduced graphene oxide, carbon nanohorns, graphene nanofoams, graphene nanorods, and graphene nanoflowers. In this review, we compare different carbon nanomaterial strategies for creating electrochemical sensors for biomolecules. Analytes covered include neurotransmitters and neurochemicals, such as dopamine, ascorbic acid, and serotonin; hydrogen peroxide; proteins, such as biomarkers; and DNA. The review also addresses enzyme-based electrodes that are used to detect non-electroactive species such as glucose, alcohols, and proteins. Finally, we analyze some of the future directions for the field, pointing out gaps in fundamental understanding of electron transfer to carbon nanomaterials and the need for more practical implementation of sensors.

Adenosine modulates blood flow and neurotransmission and may be protective during pathological conditions such as ischemia and stroke. A real-time sensor of adenosine concentrations is needed to understand its physiological actions and the extent of receptor activation. Microelectrodes are advantageous for in vivo measurements because they are small and can make fast measurements. The goal of this study was to characterize detection of physiological adenosine concentration changes at carbon-fiber microelectrodes with subsecond temporal resolution. The oxidation potential of adenosine is +1.3 V, so fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) was performed with an applied potential from -0.4 to 1.5 V and back at 400 V/s every 100 ms. Two oxidation peaks were detected for adenosine with T-650 carbon fibers. The second oxidation peak at 1.0 V occurs after the initial oxidation at 1.5 V and is due to a sequential oxidation step. Adsorption was maximized to obtain detection limits of 15 nM, lower than basal adenosine concentrations in the brain. The electrode was insensitive to the metabolite inosine and seven times more sensitive to adenosine than ATP. The enzymatic degradation of adenosine was monitored with FSCV. This microelectrode sensor will be valuable for biological monitoring of adenosine.

The brain contains a vast network of neurons that connect with each other at specialized junctions called synapses.A synapse consists of a presynaptic terminal (the "sending"neuron) and a postsynaptic bouton (the "receiving" neuron)that are separated by a gap of 5-50 nm (Figure 1). Chemicals released into this synaptic gap interact with receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. This leads to intracellular changes in the postsynaptic neuron-for example, an altered membrane potential or gene expression. The chemical signal is terminated by transporter proteins that transfer transmitter molecules across the membrane to the intracellular space (a process known as "reuptake")or enzymes that degrade the transmitter in the vicinity of the synapse (Figure 1). This classical view of neurotransmission might be considered point-to-point or"wired" communication because neurons communicate only with neurons to which they are specifically connected. In addition,neurotransmitters can activate receptors at more distant sites either by escaping the synapse or by being directly released into extrasynaptic space. This longer-range communication has been called "volume" transmission (1, S1; S references can be found in Supporting Information). All brain functions, from controlling movement to emotions, involve these two forms of chemical communication. Analytical chemistry has an important role to play in developing our understanding of the brain by providing tools for identification and measurement of the many chemicals involved in neurotransmission.

Terminal activity causes an increase in local cerebral blood flow that can be quantified by measuring the accompanying increase in tissue oxygen. Alkaline pH changes can also follow neuronal activation. The purpose of these studies was to determine whether these changes in extracellular oxygen and pH correlate. Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry was used to detect changes in dopamine, pH and oxygen levels simultaneously in the caudate-putamen after electrical stimulation of the substantia nigra in anesthetized rats. The biphasic increases in oxygen and pH followed similar time courses, and were delayed a few seconds from the immediate release and uptake of dopamine. The changes following administration of neurotransmitter receptor antagonists as well as agents that modulate blood flow were identical for oxygen and pH. Two distinct mechanisms were identified that give rise to the oxygen and pH changes: blood vessel dilatation caused by nitric oxide synthesis after muscarinic receptor activation and adenosine receptor activation. We conclude that changes in blood flow accompanying terminal activity cause alkaline pH shifts by the rapid removal of carbon dioxide, a component of the extracellular brain buffering system. Keywords: cerebral blood flow, dopamine, pH, striatum, functional magnetic resonance imaging. The brain depends on regulation of the circulation to maintain an adequate energy supply. Control of local blood flow by a variety of endogenous substances has been demonstrated. For example, the neurotransmitters GABA and glutamate are vasodilators in hippocampal slices (Fergus and Lee 1997;Lovick et al. 1999), and dopamine neurons directly innervate intraparenchymal vessels in the cortex causing vasoconstriction (Krimer et al. 1998). Blood flow is also regulated by metabolic byproducts such as adenosine, K + or H + (Sandor 1999). Classically, cerebral blood flow was determined by measuring the rate of hydrogen clearance at a platinum microelectrode after hydrogen formation in the brain (Young 1980). More recently, Lowry et al. (1997) have shown that regional increases in tissue oxygen, measured electrochemically, parallel the increases in cerebral blood flow measured by hydrogen clearance during behavioral activation. An increase in tissue oxygen occurs because oxygen utilization rates, although accelerated, are lower than oxygen delivery rates owing to vasodilatation (Fox and Raichle 1986). This increase in oxygen after terminal activation is the basis for the brain imaging techniques positron emission tomography, which measures blood flow, and blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which measures blood oxygenation (Raichle 1998).Cerebral blood flow is important not only in the delivery of metabolic nutrients but also in the removal of carbon dioxide, a byproduct of oxidative metabolism and component of the brain buffering system. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the hydration of carbon dioxide to produce carbonic acid, which can dissociate to bicarbonat...