Mourning is a process of social disengagement. In our modern society, however, the influence of social and religious institutions on the process of mourning has significantly diminished and been partially replaced by mental health clinics. Given the latter's penchant for the intrapsychic view, the perspective on mourning has become reduced to the individual. These trends are clearly reflected in a review of current literature and research on mourning. This paper proposes an interactional, systemic view of mourning through the analysis of two different families. Findings indicate that despite contextual differences between these two families, some basic commonalities render generalizations possible: (a) The selection of the identified patient is not coincidental to the stage of the family life cycle and to the role of the deceased member in the system. (b) Although death affects each individual differently, depending upon his or her relationship with the deceased, it continues to influence all family relations with equal powers. (c) Nonresolution of mourning permits a ghost to become an integral member of the family system. Examination of the treatment process demonstrates that a systemic approach is effective, even when individuals are interviewed alone.
A family systems analysis of two therapy cases contradicts conventional views of mourning as being primarily an individual experience or measurable most importantly in terms of short-term impact on health. Rather, the event of a father's death is shown in one case to compound problems slowly over five years, whereas in another case, it facilitates the young adult son's process of maturation. The particular patterns of the family prior to the death and their larger sociocultural context are shown to be essential to the diagnosis and the choice of appropriate strategies for therapy.
The Invariant Approach of Mara Selvini-Palazzoli is a new development in the Milan approach to family therapy. In order to distinguish and explain it, an overview of the Invariant Approach is given. Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development is used to provide a framework for explaining how Selvini-Palazzoli's therapy alters the family's epistemology and facilitates change in the "family game." It is suggested that family members in therapy tend to think about their problems in a style that resembles Piaget's preoperational period. The process of therapy can be seen as geared to facilitate a shift from a preoperational to an operational style of cognitive functioning. This shift gives family members access to more adaptive ways of thinking about their problem-solving strategies.
Family therapy training programmes have proliferated dramatically in recent times, without guidelines or much research. The clinical skills and personal characteristics that supervisors look for in trainees are: a strong sense of the self, the ability to conceptualize systemically at complex levels, and responsible clinical judgement. Personal training and experience outweighs the importance of professional background. A prior foundation in the social sciences and consolidation of basic professional training are emphasized. Concerns are discussed about superficial training at brief workshops. Defining competency and ensuring minimum standards are both difficult, yet essential, to protect the public and the credibility of family therapy.
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